iliiiliii 


SKRKfiLEY.  CAUFORfillAi 


AMERICAN    TEACHERS   SERIES 

EDITED   BY 

JAMES   E.  RUSSELL,  Ph.D. 

DEAN    OF  TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


THE 

TEACHING  OF  LATIN  AND  GREEK  IN  THE 
SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

BY 

CHARLES    E.  BENNETT,  A.B. 

AND 

GEORGE   P.  BRISTOL,  A.M. 

PROFESSORS     IN    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 


amerufftt  JEtncftev^  ^tviti 


The  Teaching  of  Latin  ^hd 

Greek  in  the  Secondary 

School 


BY 

CHARLES   E.  BENNETT,  A.B. 

AND 

GEORGE    R   BRISTOL,   A.M. 

PROFESSORS   IN   CORNELL   UNIVERSITY 


New  Impression 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND   CO. 

91  AND  93  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 

LONDON   AND   BOMBAY 

1903 


c  c  c         c  «  •        •  .,^\    ^\ 


?  •    « 


\>>^  ^ 
V 


EDUCATION  DEPT? 

Copyright,  1899, 
By  Longmans,  Green,  and  Co. 


First  Edition,  May,  1901. 
Reprinted,  March,  1903. 


UNIVERSITY   PRESS    .    JOHN    WILSON 
AND    SON     •    CAMBRIDGE,  U.S.A. 


TO 

BENJAMIN    IDE    WHEELER 

IN 

FRIENDSHIP   AND   ESTEEM 

C.  E.  B. 
G.  P.  B. 


440S4 


Editor's   Preface 

Secondary  education  is  no  new  thing.  Human  soci- 
ety has  always  granted  commanding  positions  to  men 
who  were  qualified  by  natural  ability  and  special  train- 
ing to  lead  their  fellows.  With  advancing  civilization 
the  need  of  specially  trained  leaders  became  increas- 
ingly apparent;  schools  were  eventually  established  to 
meet  this  need.  Such  institutions,  however  rudimentary 
their  course  of  instruction,  were  essentially  secondary 
schools.  Thus  the  schools  of  the  grammarians  and 
rhetoricians  were  calculated  to  develop  leadership  in  the 
forum  at  a  time  when  oratory  was  a  recognized  power 
in  the  political  life  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Later  in  the 
Middle  Age  the  Church  became  the  dominant  social 
force,  and  gave  rise  to  cathedral  and  monastic  schools 
for  the  education  of  the  clergy.  With  the  founding  of 
universities,  however,  the  secondary  schools  took  over 
the  preparation  of  promising  youths  for  professional 
study  in  the  interests  of  Church  and  State.  And  this 
function  has  continued  to  be  the  chief  characteristic  of 
secondary  education  until  the  present  time. 

The  modern  elementary  school,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  of  comparatively  recent  growth.  In  a  certain  sense 
every  man  is  educated,  but  historically  the  education  of 


Vlli  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

the  masses  comes  for  the  most  part  through  custom 
and  tradition  and  the  ordinary  experiences  of  Hfe. 
Schools  for  the  people  and  formal  instruction  are  not 
required  until  there  is  universal  recognition  of  individ- 
ual worth,  such  as  the  worth  of  the  human  soul  which 
inspired  Luther  to  found  the  elementary  schools  of 
Germany,  or  the  worth  of  the  citizen  and  his  political 
rights  under  a  representative  government  which  led 
to  the  public  schools  of  America  and  England.  The 
recognition  of  such  rights  by  a  democratic  society  obvi- 
ously leads  to  a  complete  school  system  in  which  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  its  various  divisions,  as  ele- 
mentary, secondary,  and  higher,  is  arbitrarily  drawn. 

The  ideals  which  determine  the  growth  of  educational 
systems  never  remain  long  fixed ;  they  change  from  age 
to  age  to  conform  to  the  development  of  the  political, 
economic,  and  spiritual  Hfe  of  a  people.  The  mediaeval 
school  system  was  quickly  overthrown  in  Protestant 
countries  by  the  combined  influence  of  the  humanists 
and  the  reformers.  And  the  Protestant  schools,  in 
turn,  held  undisputed  sway  only  so  long  as  their  reli- 
gious ideals  found  popular  support.  Within  the  last 
hundred  years  another  transformation  has  been  effected 
in  the  educational  ideals  of  the  western  world,  and  new 
school  systems  have  been  evolved  under  the  direction 
of  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  civil  order 
and  social  stability.  The  social  mind  has  come  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  the  Church  is  no  longer  able  to 
shape  society  as  it  once  did ;  and  it  also  recognizes 
that  each  generation  is  under  moral  obligations  to  im- 
prove its  cultural  inheritance  and  transmit  it  unentailed. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE  IX 

Hence  the  resort  to  the  strongest  force  in  modern 
society  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose.  The 
process  of  sociaHzing  the  individual  —  of  making  him 
an  efficient,  intelligent,  loyal  member  of  society  —  has 
no  mean  significance.  The  end  in  view  is  one  of  the 
greatest  of  human  needs ;  and  it  is  equally  the  concern 
of  every  parent  and  every  citizen. 

School  reform,  however,  never  amounts  to  complete 
revolution.  The  organization  and  administration  of 
school  systems  may  be  revolutionized  by  ministerial 
rescript,  as  in  Prussia  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  or 
by  act  of  Parliament,  as  in  England  within  the  past 
thirty  years,  or  by  the  adoption  of  a  constitution,  as  in 
many  American  states,  but  the  instruction  of  children 
cannot  be  reached  by  legal  enactment  or  popular  vote. 
The  average  teacher  will  consistently  conform  to  the 
letter  of  the  law  and  as  persistently  violate  its  spirit. 
The  result  is  that  long  after  new  ideas  are  distinctly 
enunciated,  even  after  they  are  generally  accepted  by 
intelligent  persons,  the  strangest  confusion  often  per- 
vades the  class-room.  Teachers  are  naturally  conserva- 
tive; they  can  teach  only  what  they  themselves  have 
learned,  and  the  traditions  of  the  profession  combined 
with  their  own  acquired  habits  incline  them  to  teach  as 
they  themselves  have  been  taught.  Thus  the  prevailing 
means  and  methods  of  instruction  do  not  always  con- 
form to  the  accepted  standards  of  education,  and  reform 
is  halted  midway  in  its  course. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years,  but 
the  results  which  show  up  so  well  on  paper  are  not  in 
all  respects  satisfactory.     We  have  state  school  systems 


X  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

well  organized  and  thoroughly  equipped ;  we  have,  too, 
institutions  in  great  variety  serving  ends  of  their  own 
choosing.  The  growth  has  been  in  two  directions, 
from  the  top  downward  and  from  the  bottom  upward. 
The  colleges  have  dipped  down  into  the  lower  strata 
and  given  rise  to  preparatory  schools  largely  patronized 
by  the  favored  classes  of  society ;  the  common  schools, 
imbued  with  more  democratic  sympathies,  have  ex- 
panded into  public  high  schools  in  which  social  distinc- 
tions have  no  place.  The  preparatory  school  aims  to 
send  its  pupils  to  college ;  the  ways  and  means  of  best 
attaining  this  purpose  are  conditioned  by  what  the  col- 
lege wants  and  what  it  will  accept.  The  American 
high  school,  in  its  effort  to  serve  all  classes,  purports  to 
be  a  school  preparatory  both  for  college  and  the  ordi- 
nary avocations  of  life.  One  class  in  the  community 
expects  it  to  complete  the  educational  structure  begun 
in  the  common  schools ;  another  class  expects  it  to  lay 
a  substantial  foundation  for  further  academic  training. 
Thus  the  confusion  resulting  from  the  natural  conserva- 
tism of  the  teacher  is  worse  confounded  by  conflicting 
social  interests. 

In  all  the  field  of  education  there  are  no  problems 
more  difficult  to  solve  than  those  pertaining  to  the 
work  of  the  secondary  school.  What  is  the  aim  of 
secondary  education?  What  is  its  function  in  modern 
society?  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth?  What 
means  and  methods  produce  the  best  results?  Such 
questions  as  these  come  to  every  secondary  teacher  and 
demand  an  answer.  The  most  encouraging  sign  of  the 
times  is  the  growth  of  a  teaching  profession  pledged  to 


EDITORS  PREFACE  xi 

study  these  problems   intelligently  and   to  find   some 
rational  solution  of  them. 

The  •*  American  Teachers  Series,"  the  first  volume  of 
which  is  herewith  presented,  will  review  the  principal 
subjects  of  the  secondary  school  curriculum.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  discuss  the  educational  value  of  each  subject, 
the  reasons  for  including  it  in  the  curriculum,  the  selec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  materials  in  the  course,  the 
essential  features  of  class  instruction  and  the  various 
helps  which  are  available  for  teachers*  use.  These 
books  are  not  intended  to  correct  the  faults  of  ignorant 
teaching ;  they  are  not  put  forth  as  manuals  of  infallible 
methods.  They  are  merely  contributions  to  the  pro- 
fessional knowledge  necessary  in  secondary  education. 
They  are  addressed  to  teachers  of  liberal  culture  and 
special  scholarship  who  are  seeking  to  make  their 
knowledge  more  useful  to  their  pupils  and  their  pupils 
more  useful  to  the  State. 

JAMES   E.   RUSSELL. 

Teachers  College, 

Columbia  University, 


Contents 


THE   TEACHING  OF   LATIN   IN    THE   SECONDARY 
SCHOOL 

Page 

Introduction  — Historical  Position  of  the  Study  of  Latin 

IN  Modern  Education i 

Chapter 

I.    The  Justification  of  Latin  as  an  Instrument  of 

Secondary  Education 6 

II.    The  Beginning  Work 50 

I.    The  Beginner's  Book 51 

II.    Pronunciation 66 

IIL    The  "Inductive"  Method 80 

IV.    Reading  at  Sight 85 

V.    Unseen  Translation 103 

VI.    What  Latin  Reading  should  Follow  the  Elementary 

Work? 106 

in.    What  Authors  are  to  be  Read  in  the  Secondary 

School,  and  in  what  Sequence? in 

1.    What  Author  should  be  Read  First  ? in 

II.    Should  Cicero  Precede  or  Follow  Virgil  ?     ....  119 

III.  Should  Virgil's  Eclogues  be  Read  in  the  Secondary 

School  ? 121 

IV.  Sallust 123 

V.    Ovid 124 

VI.    Five-year  and  Six-year  Latin  Courses       124 


XIV  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

IV.    Conduct  of  the  Secondary  Work  in  Latin     ...  131 

I.  General  Points  on  which  Emphasis  should  be  Laid  .  131 

a.  Translation 131 

b.  Subject  Matter     .    .^ 133 

c.  Grammar 134 

d.  How  Scientific  should  a  School  Grammar  be  }  141 

e.  The   Grammar  a  Book  to  be    Studied    and 

Learned        144 

II.  Special   Points  to  be  Emphasized  in  Connection 

with  the  Different  Latin  Authors  Read  in 

the  Secondary  School 150 

a.  Caesar 150 

b.  Cicero 151 

c.  Virgil's  JEneid 153 

V.   Latin  Composition 158 

Two  Ways  of  Teaching  it 158 

The  Purpose  of  Studying  Latin  Composition    ....  160 

Defects  of  the  Newer  Way 161 

VI.    Latin  Prosody 175 

Difficulties  of  Reading  Latin  Verse .  175 

*  Ictus  '  not  Stress 177 

Points  in  which  our  Pronunciation  of  Latin  fails  to  se- 
cure Quantitative  Accuracy        182 

VII.    Some  Miscellaneous  Points 191 

a.  Roman  History       lOi 

b.  Comparative  Philology 195 

c.  Etymology 196 

d.  Illustrative  Material 197 

Books 197 

Maps 201 

Photographs  and  Casts 201 

VIII.   The  Preparation  of  the  Teacher 202 

Concluding  Note 213 


CONTENTS  XV 


THE  TEACHING   OF  GREEK  IN  THE   SECONDARY 
SCHOOL 

Page 

Introduction  —  The  Aim  of  Greek  Study  in  the    High 

School 217 

Chapter 

I.    Pronunciation 225 

Theory  and  Practice 228 

Accent  in  Pronunciation 232 

Pronunciation  of  Proper  Names       234 

II.    The  Beginning  Work 240 

The  Two  Methods 240 

The  First  Paradigms 242 

The  Development  of  Syntax 247 

The  First  Reading 253 

III.    Xenophon  and   Other   Prose  Writers  —  The  Greek 

New  Testament 256 

The  Conducting  of  Recitation 257 

Omissions  in  the  Anabasis 261 

Further  Prose  Reading 263 

The  Greek  New  Testament 267 


IV.    Homer 


271 


The  Problem  of  Selection 274 

Reading  of  the  Text 274 

Interpretation  of  the  Text 278 

Translating  Homer 282 

English  Versions  of  Homer 284 

Homeric  Language 292 

What  Portions  to  Read 294 

V.    Greek  Composition 298 

Object  of  Composition 300 

Articulation  of  Clauses 301 

Suggestions  for  Practice 305 


XVI  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

VI.  Geography  and  History 30S 

History  Part  of  Work  in  Greek 309 

Importance  of  Correct  Maps 310 

Division  of  History  into  Periods 314 

Modern  Greece,  Land  and  People 319 

VII.    Mythology  and  Art 321 

Greek  Mythology  in  English  Literature 324 

Greek  Art 326 

Materials  for  Illustration  of  Greek  Art 328 

The  Teacher  and  his  Work 330 

Appendix 331 

Index 333 

Map  of  the  Greek  World Facing  page  311 


THE   TEACHING  OF  LATIN    IN   THE 
SECONDARY   SCHOOL 

BY 
CHARLES   E.  BENNETT,  A.B. 

PROFESSOR   OF   LATIN    IN    CORNELL   UNIVERSITY 


The  Teaching  of  Latin  in  the 
Secondary  School 


INTRODUCTION 

HISTORICAL    POSITION    OF     THE    STUDY     OF    LATIN    IN 
MODERN   EDUCATION 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Paulsen,  F.  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  auf  den  deutschen 
Schulen  und  Universitateu  vom  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters  bis  zur  Ge- 
genwart.     Leipzig.     1885.     Second  ed.,  1897. 

Dettweiler,  P.,  in  Baumeister,  A.,  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und 
Unterrichtslehre  fiir  hohere  Schulen.  Vol.  iii.  Didaktik  und  Methodik 
der  einzelnen  Lehrfacher,  Erste  Halfte,  III.  Lateinisch,  p.  7  ff.,  'Die 
geschichtliche  Entwickelung  des  lateinischen  Unterrichts.' 

It  ^  is  a  sufficiently  familiar  fact  that,  whatever  con- 
siderations now  determine    the    retention    of   Latin    as 

an  instrument  of  the   higher    education,   its    „  ,^. 

.   .     11  ,  ,  Position  of 

place  was  not  ongmally  secured   as  the  re-    Latin  in  the 

suit  of  conscious  deliberation  and  choice,  but  ^'^^^^^^^ 
purely  as  the  result  of  irresistible  historical  circum- 
stances. The  political,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary  con- 
ditions of  the  Middle  Ages  made  the  study  of  Latin 
indispensable  to  every  person  of  station.  Latin  was 
the  language  of  the  Church,  of  the  State,  of  law,  of 
scholars,  of  the  professions.  It  was  studied  there- 
fore  in   the   monastic   schools  with   the  object  of  ac- 


1  In  this  introductory  chapter  I  have  drawn  largely  upon  the  treat* 
ment  of  Dettweiler  above  cited. 

I 


^;.  '■,/  I  ;/;  \    I     INTRODUCTION 

iqurnfi^,' ^ 'pi;aG'tical;  mastery  of  the  spoken  Idiom  for 
actual  use.  Pupils  were  trained  in  the  preparation 
of  letters  and  such  other  documents  as  the  necessities 
of  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  life  of  the  day  de- 
manded. Latin  was  not  only  the  medium  of  instruction 
in  the  schools,  but  was  also  the  medium  of  all  conversa- 
tion. The  Latin  authors  read  served  merely  the  pur- 
pose of  increasing  and  improving  the  pupil's  knowledge 
of  the  language  and  his  facility  in  its  employment 
The  content  of  the  Latin  writers  was  practically  disre- 
garded throughout  the  entire  period  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  This  conception  of  the  function  of  Latin  natu- 
rally determined  the  method  pursued  in  teaching.  As 
the  Latin  vocabulary  was  confessedly  inadequate  for 
the  needs  of  the  day,  it  became  necessary  to  add  new 
words,  coined  to  cover  new  conceptions.  These  were 
incorporated  in  special  vocabularies,  which  pupils  com- 
mitted to  memory.  Mechanical  oral  reading  was  also 
extensively  practised,  —  often  before  the  pupils  were 
capable  of  understanding  what  was  read.  Intended  to 
serve  merely  mechanical  purposes,  Latin  was  studied 
exclusively  in  a  mechanical  way.  Yet,  irrational  as  the 
method  seems  to  us,  we  can  hardly  deny  that  it  was 
entirely  consistent  with  the  purposes  which  the  study 
was  at  that  time  intended  to  subserve.  Nor  can  we 
feel  surprise  that,  with  this  conception  of  the  function 
of  Latin,  there  should  have  prevailed  a  low  and  almost 
barbarous  standard  in  the  employment  of  the  spoken 
and  written  idiom. 

With  the  humanistic  revival  of  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries  there  manifested  itself  an  altered  and 
The  Human-  ^  loftier  conception  of  Latin  study.  This  new 
istic  Revival,  conception  was  a  natural  and  inevitable  result 
of  the  fundamental  spirit  of  the  humanistic  movement. 
While  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  all  intellectual  life 


INTRODUCTION  3 

had  culminated  in  the  ecclesiastical  ideals  of  the  scho- 
lastic philosophy,  the  new  movement  placed  man,  human 
capacities,  human  achievements,  and  human  aspirations 
in  the  foreground.  The  great  works  of  classical  anti- 
quity were  recognised  as  of  vital  importance  in  under- 
standing and  solving  the  new  problems. 

This  conception  of  Latin  as  an  instrument  of  educa- 
tion speedily  wrought  a  revolution  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing. Hitherto  both  form  and  content  of  the  Latin 
masterpieces  had  been  neglected.  Now  both  began  to 
meet  recognition.  The  great  Latin  classics  were  read 
and  studied  for  their  vital  bearings  on  the  intellectual 
life  and  aspirations  of  the  new  era.  They  were  no 
longer  primarily  a  means  of  acquiring  a  familiarity  with 
the  disjecta  membra  of  the  barbarous  idiom  which  had  till 
recently  prevailed. 

Along  with  this  appreciation  of  the  substance  of 
Roman  thought  went  an  appreciation  for  the  form  in 
which  it  was  expressed.  The  spirit  of  the  day  was 
anti-barbarous  to  a  degree.  Correctness  and  elegance 
of  diction  came  to  be  a  passion  with  the  Latinists  of 
the  time.  This  tendency  naturally  went  too  far,  and 
we  notice  the  beginning  of  an  arbitrary  exaltation  of 
the  Ciceronian  manner  of  speech  as  the  sole  example 
worthy  of  imitation,  —  an  attitude  which  unfortunately, 
despite  frequent  and  vigorous  protest,  is  still  widely 
prevalent  to-day. 

It  is  essentially  this  humanistic  conception  of  Latin 
study  which  has  prevailed  in  modern  education  since  the 
Renaissance,  flhe  special  details  of  devel-  Latin  in 
opment  for  Germany  may  be  found  pre-  Recent  Times, 
sented  by  a  master  hand  in  the  work  of  Paulsen  above 
cited.  So  far  as  I  know,  no  such  presentation  of  the 
historical  stages  of  Latin  study  in  any  other  European 
country  is  yet  available.     Probably  in  no  other  would 


4  INTRODUCTION 

such  a  history  have  the  interest  or  the  historical  and 
pedagogical  significance  afforded  by  the  experience 
of  the  German  schools. 

In  the  United  States,  Latin,  as  a  study  of  the  sec- 
ondary education,  naturally  started  with  purely  English 
In  the  United  traditions.  These  traditions  fortunately  were 
states.  humanistic  in  the  best  sense.     Still,  for  a  long 

time  Latin  was  thought  to  be  peculiarly  a  study  for  boys 
who  were  preparing  for  college.  In  the  earlier  history 
of  this  country  this  meant  that  Latin  was  thought  to 
have  educative  importance  primarily  for  those  looking 
forward  to  activity  in  the  church,  in  letters,  in  the  law, 
in  medicine,  or  in  teaching.  During  the  last  generation 
in  particular  a  different  attitude  seems  to  be  manifesting 
itself  The  number  of  students  of  Latin  in  our  second- 
ary schools  has  in  recent  years  been  increasing  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  number  of  students  who  go  to  college. 
Unless  this  phenomenon  be  attributed  to  an  unaccount- 
able infatuation,  it  admits  to  my  mind  of  but  a  single 
interpretation :  Latin  is  now  recognised  as  an  important 
element  of  secondary  education  for  the  average  pupil, 
whether  he  be  intending  to  go  to  college  or  not.  It 
is  perhaps  unfortunate  that  the  present  tendency  to- 
wards a  larger  study  of  Latin  in  our  schools  cannot 
be  traced  to  any  recent  sober  discussions  of  the  value 
of  Latin ;  in  fact  it  is  not  a  little  surprising  that  this 
rapidly  increased  recognition  has  occurred  in  the  face 
of  the  most  vigorous  assaults  upon  the  classics  which 
this  country  has  ever  witnessed.  Yet  experience  is 
the  great  teacher,  more  convincing  than  all  the  argu- 
ments of  the  academicians.  Is  it  too  bold  to  say  that 
the  experience  of  those  who  have  studied  Latin  and 
of  those  who  have  seen  the  positive  results  of  the  study 
upon  others,  is  after  all  the  ultimate  reason  which  is 
at  present  so  potent  in  winning  increased  recognition 


INTRODUCTION  5 

for  Latin?  Whatever  the  cause  of  the  existing  con- 
ditions, they  are  with  us.  That  they  may  be  permanent 
is  to  be  hoped.  That  there  is  abundant  justification 
for  their  permanence,  it  will  be  the  aim  of  the  following 
chapter  to  show. 


•  .   t  •  > 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   JUSTIFICATION   OF   LATIN  AS   AN   INSTRUMENT 
OF   SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.i 

Ijaurie,  S.  S.  Lectures  on  Language  and  Linguistic  Method.  Cam- 
bridge  University  Press.     1890.     Chapter  i.  and  particularly  Chapter  vii. 

Chapters  on  the  Aims  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  edited  by  Frederic 
Spencer.  Cambridge  University  Press.  1897.  Chapter  ii.,  Latin,  by 
W.  L.  Paton. 

Fouillee,  Alfred.  Education  from  a  National  Standpoint.  London, 
Arnold.     New  York,  Appleton.     1892. 

Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  fUr  hohere  Schulen, 
herausgegeben  von  A.  Baumeister.  Munich.  C.  H.  Beck'sche  Ver- 
lagsbuchhandlung.  1898.  Didaktik  und  Methodik  der  einzelnen  Lehr- 
facher.     IIL   Lateinisch,  von  P.  Dettweiler. 

Boyesen,  H.  H. ;  Brandt,  H.  C.  G. ;  Sachs,  Julius ;  Mackenzie,  James 
C. ;  and  others,  in  Proceedings  of  the  First  Annual  Convention  (1893) 
of  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  in  the  Middle 
States  and  Maryland.  Published  for  the  Association.  Philadelphia. 
1894.     pp.  38-64. 

Paulsen,  Friedrich.  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  auf  den 
deutschen  Schulen  und  Universitaten.  Leipzig.  1885.  Veit  &  Comp. 
Particularly  "  Schlussbetrachtung."     pp.  755-784- 

Harris,  W.  T.  On  the  Function  of  the  Study  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Education.     Journal  of  Social  Science.     1885. 

Harris,  "W.  T.  A  Brief  for  Latin.  Educational  Review.  April, 
1899. 

Peck,  Tracy.    Discussion  in  School  Review.     1893.    PP-  593  ff- 

Shorey,  Paul.  Discipline  vs.  Dissipation.  School  Review.  1897. 
pp.  217  ff. 

Collar,  "W.  C. ;  Burgess,  Isaac ;  Manny,  Frank.  Proceedings  of  the 
National  Educational  Association.     1896.    pp.  563  ff. 

Bennett,  C.  E.  Latin  in  the  Secondary  School.  School  Review. 
May,  1893. 

Spencer,  Herbert.  Education,  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical 
London,  Williams  &  Norgate.     New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1861. 


1  Only  the  more  important  recent  literature  is  here  cited. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION   OF  LATIN  7 

Bain,  Alexander.  Education  as  a  Science.  London,  Kegan  Paul 
&  Co.     New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1881. 

Planck,  H.  Das  Recht  des  Lateinischen  als  wissenschaftlichen  Bil- 
dungsmittel.     Stuttgart.     Schulprogramm.     1888. 

Schmeding.     Die  klassische  Bildung  in  der  Gegenwart.    Berlin.    1885. 

Frary,  R,     La  Question  du  Latin.     Paris.     1890. 

James,  Professor  Edmund  J.  The  Classical  Question  in  Germany. 
Popular  Science  Monthly.    January,  1884. 

Barnett,  P.  A.  Common  Sense  in  Education  and  Teaching.  Chapter 
viii.     London  and  New  York.     Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.     1899. 

Jebb,  R.  C.  Humanism  in  Education.  (Romanes  Lecture  for  1899.) 
London.     Macmillan  &  Co.     1899. 

Eliot,  C.  W.  American  Contributions  to  Civilization.  New  York. 
The  Century  Co,     1897. 

The  question  as  to  the  educational  worth  of  any  study 
must  always  be  a  pertinent  one.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  case  of  Latin,  which  has  not  only  The  Question 
for  generations  occupied  a  commanding  place  ^^°'®  ^*- 
in  the  curriculum  of  American  secondary  education,  but 
in  recent  years  has  even  been  winning  enormously  in- 
creased favour  among  us.  Despite  the  extensive  litera- 
ture on  the  subject,  it  has  seemed  necessary,  at  the 
beginning  of  this  volume  on  the  teaching  of  Latin  in  the 
secondary  school,  to  examine  afresh  the  title  of  Latin 
to  the  present  respect  it  enjoys,  and  to  state  anew  the 
reasons  why  it  is  of  value  in  secondary  education.  Lest 
there  be  any  misconception  as  to  the  subject  of  the 
chapter,  it  is  desirable  to  emphasize  at  the  outset  that 
the  value  of  Latin  as  a  college  study  does  not  here  enter 
into  consideration.  That  question,  interesting  and  im- 
portant as  it  is,  seems  to  me  entirely  distinct  from  the 
question  as  to  the  value  of  Latin  in  the  secondary  school. 
At  all  events  it  is  to  the  latter  that  the  present  discus- 
sion will  be  confined. 

The  fundamental  importance  of  the  examination  pro- 
posed hardly  needs  to  be  urged.  For  obviously  the 
general  method  of  instruction  to  be  followed  in  teach- 
ing Latin  must  depend  largely  upon  the  results  that 


8  THE  JUSTIFICA  TION  OF  LA  TIN 

the  study  is  capable  of  achieving,  and  the  teacher  who 
fails  clearly  to  apprehend  the  goal  to  be  attained  must 
necessarily  pursue  but  a  groping  course  in  imparting 
instruction.  The  recent  increase,  too,  in  the  number  of 
pupils  studying  Latin  in  our  secondary  schools  makes 
it  of  increasing  importance  to  get  clearly  before  our 
minds  the  functions  and  purpose  of  the  study.  The 
Statistics  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 
United  States  show  that  in  the  eight  years  prior  to  1898 
the  number  of  pupils  studying  Latin  in  our  secondary 
schools  had  increased  174  per  cent,  while  the  total  en- 
rolment of  pupils  in  the  secondary  schools  for  the  same 
period  had  increased  but  84  per  cent.  In  other  words, 
the  study  of  Latin  has  increased  more  than  twice  as 
rapidly  as  has  the  enrolment  of  the  secondary  school. 
No  thoughtful  person  can  fail  to  be  impressed  by  these 
figures.  If  Latin  is  not  of  basal  importance  in  the 
secondary  curriculum,  then  large  numbers  of  students 
are  making  a  prodigious  error  in  pursuing  the  subject; 
and  the  sooner  we  understand  this,  the  better  for  our 
civilization.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  increase  is  the 
result  of  wise  choice  or  even  of  wise  instinct,  we  must, 
while  rejoicing  at  the  greater  recognition  Latin  is  secur- 
ing, at  the  same  time  admit  our  own  vastly  increased 
responsibility  for  its  wise  direction  and  promotion. 

Before  considering  the  special  reasons  that  exist  in 
favor  of  studying  Latin,  let  us  first  consider  the  function 

of  lane^uae^e  in  general  as  an  instrument  of 
Educational         j  . 

Function  of     education. 

gSS^*^        '^^^  function  of  education  is  confessedly 

to  prepare  pupils  to  be  useful  members  of 

society.     To  make  them  such,  it  is  essential  that  they  be 

taught  to  understand  as  fully  as  possible  the  nature  and 

character  of  the    national   hfe — social,   civil,   political, 

religious  —  in  which  they  are  born  or  in  which  their  lot 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  9 

is  cast.  To  a  certain  extent,  also,  it  is  essential  that 
they  learn  to  apprehend  the  nature  and  character  of  the 
larger  life  of  the  race. 

What  now  is  the  instrument  best  adapted  to  the 
attainment  of  this  end?  It  is  language.  As  pointed 
out  by  Laurie  {Lectures  on  Language  and  Linguistic 
Method,  chapter  i,),  language  is  the  supreme  instru- 
ment in  education,  i.  e.  the  higher  education,  because 
of  its  universal  nature.  It  promotes  intellectual  dis- 
cipline and  brings  intellectual  power,  because  the  study 
of  language  brings  us  at  every  turn  face  to  face,  as 
nothing  else  does,  with  subjects  and  questions  of  in- 
tellectual concern  and  intellectual  interest.  Language 
deals  with  ideas,  it  touches  perpetually  on  problems  of 
the  relations  of  man  to  man,  of  man  to  society,  of  man 
to  the  State.  Its  analysis  demands  refinement  and 
nicety  of  thinking.  So  long  then  as  ideas  are  impor- 
tant, and  so  long  as  the  underlying  conceptions  which 
reflect  the  national  life  of  a  people  are  important,  the 
supreme  value  of  the  mastery  of  these  through  language 
study  will  continue  to  be  recognised. 

By  the  study  of  language  is  meant  the  study  of  one's 

own  language ;  but,  as  will  be  pointed  out  later  in  this 

chapter,  this  study  of  one's  own  language  is  achieved 

incomparably  better  by  the  indirect  method  of  studying 

another  language.     Only  so  can  the  necessary  processes 

of  comparison  be  effectively  instituted.     To  this  it  has 

often  been  objected  that  the  Greeks,  so  con-  significance 

spicuous  for  their  brilliant  civilization  and  of  the  Neglect 
1     .  M       •  1        •        1     of  Language 

their  permanent  contributions  to   the   intel-  study  by 

lectual   life  of  subsequent  ages,   studied   no  ^^^  Greeks. 

language  but  their  own.     An  excited  partisan,^  in  the 

heat  of  discussion,  once  went  so  far  as  to  assert,  "  Grant- 


1  Professor  E.  L.  Youmans  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for 
December,  1883,  p.  270,  b. 


lO  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

ing  the  unapproachable  perfection  of  Greek  literature, 
and  that  the  Greeks  surpassed  the  world  in  philo- 
sophical acuteness,  the  invincible  fact  remains  that  they 
expended  no  effort  in  the  study  of  foreign  languages, 
and  common  sense  declares  it  was  because  of  it''  Obvi- 
ously, if  "  common  sense  "  declared  anything  so  absurd, 
it  should  explain  to  us  why  the  Hottentots  or  the  Eski- 
mos or  the  hordes  of  other  barbarians  who  likewise 
know  no  language  but  their  own,  have  not  been  similarly 
eminent  for  their  contributions  to  human  thought. 

As  to  the  Greeks,  it  will  probably  always  be  impos- 
sible to  account  for  the  achievements  of  that  wonderful 
people  on  the  basis  of  their  system  of  education.  What 
they  accomplished  seems  rather  the  result  of  an  inex- 
plicable national  endowment.  Their  fine  aesthetic  sense, 
their  keen  speculative  capacity,  are  as  difficult  to  ac- 
count for  as  the  unique  genius  of  the  Romans  for 
political  organization,  for  government,  and  for  law,  or 
the  profound  sense  of  moral  obligation  to  a  higher 
power  so  impressively  formulated  by  the  Hebrews, — 
as  difficult  to.  explain  as  the  rise  of  a  Charlemagne  in 
the  eighth  century  or  an  Alfred  in  the  ninth.  Great  as 
the  Greeks  were  by  endowment,  they  certainly  were  not 
great  for  their  attainments.  With  all  their  highly  devel- 
oped aesthetic  sense  and  their  subtle  speculative  acu- 
men, they  were  manifestly  deficient  in  the  capacities 
which  it  is  the  function  of  modern  education  to  develop, 
namely,  a  just  understanding  of  the  problems  of  society, 
an  understanding  which  shall  secure  and  promote  the 
stability  of  the  social  and  political  organism.  Had  the 
Greeks  been  as  well  educated  as  they  were  highly  gifted, 
it  is  likely  that  their  own  national  life  would  have  run  a 
longer  and  a  more  glorious  course,  and  that  their  great 
legacy  to  posterity  would  thus  have  been  immensely 
increased. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  II 

At  all  events,  the  fact  that  the  Greeks,  despite  their 
neglect  of  language  study,  nevertheless  attained  a  cer- 
tain national  greatness  in  some  directions,  cannot  be 
cited  as  disproving  the  educative  value  of  such  study 
for  us  to-day. 

What,  now,  are  the  reasons  for  studying  Latin  in  the 
secondary  school?    What  are  the  effects  of  the  study 
upon  the  pupil  that  are  at  present  so  potent  Reasons  for 
not  merely  in  maintaining  its  status  but  in  studying 
extending    its    vogue?     These    reasons    are 
several,  and  I  shall  enumerate  them  in  what  seems  to 
me  the  order  of  their  importance. 

First  and  foremost,  I  should  say  Latin  is  of  value  be- 
cause it  confers  a  mastery  over  the  resources  of  one's 
mother  tongue.^     This  mastery  comes  as  the  direct  and 
necessary  result  of  careful  daily  translation,  —  a  process 
involving  on  the  one  hand  a  careful  consid-    jj-aining 
eration  and  analysis  of  the  thought  of  the    in  the 
author  read,  and  on  the  other  a  severe  and      ^"^^*^ 
laborious  comparison  of  the  value  of  alternative  Eng- 
lish words,  phrases,  and  sentences,  with  the  consequent 
attainment   of  skill   in    making   the    same    effective    as 
vehicles  of  expression.     No  one,  I  think,  will  undertake 
to  deny  that  the  results  here  claimed  are  actual ;   and  it 
actual,  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  they  constitute  an 
important  justification  for  the  study  of  Latin. 

Training  in  English,  then,  as  the  result  of  careful 
translation  from  Latin  is  here  set  down  as  the  first  and 
most  important  reason  for  studying  Latin.  To  my  own 
mind  this  reason  weighs  more  than  all  others  combined, 


1  This  is  not  meant  in  the  narrow  sense  of  a  mere  understanding  of 
the  meanins^s  of  words ;  it  is  the  mastery  of  ideas  of  which  words  are  but 
the  symbols,  and  the  assimilation  of  these  into  one's  own  intellectual 
life,  that  I  have  in  mind. 


12  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

though  several  other  excellent  reasons  for  the  study  of 
Latin  will  be  discussed  later.  Let  us  examine  more  in 
_Ajiaiysis  of  detail  how  translation  from  Latin  gives  such 
the  Process,  admirable  training  in  English.  Translation 
is  a  severe  exercise.  The  lexicon  or  vocabulary  tells 
the  meanings  of  words,  and  the  grammar  states  the 
force  of  inflected  forms ;  but  it  is  only  after  the  pupil, 
provided  with  this  equipment,  has  attacked  his  Latin 
sentence  with  a  view  to  translation  that  the  real  struggle 
begins.  His  vocabulary  may  have  given  him  a  dozen 
or  even  twenty  meanings  under  a  single  verb  or  noun, 
and  the  pupil  must  reflect  and  nicely  discriminate  be- 
fore he  can  choose  the  right  word,  the  one  just  suited 
to  the  context.  Further,  his  Latin  sentence  may  be 
long,  complex,  and  periodic,  entirely  different  in  struc- 
ture from  anything  we  know  in  English ;  such  a  sentence 
must  be  broken  up  and  so  arranged  as  to  conform  to 
our  English  mode  of  expression ;  or  the  Latin  sentence 
may  have  one  of  those  Protean  ablative  absolutes,  —  an 
idiom  that  our  English  style  practically  abhors.  Every 
such  ablative  absolute  has  to  be  examined  with  care 
prior  to  an  English  rendering.  It  may  express  time, 
cause,  concession,  condition,  attendant  circumstance, 
means,  or  what  not,  and  must  be  rendered  accordingly. 
Again  the  Latin  sentence  may  secure  by  its  arrange- 
ment of  words  certain  effects  of  emphasis  which  English 
can  bring  out  only  by  the  employment  of  very  different 
resources. 

For  the  purpose  of  further  illustration,  let  us  take  the 
opening  lines  of  Nepos's  Hfe  of  Miltiades,  and  note  the 
problems  that  suggest  themselves  to  the  pupil's  mind  as 
he  endeavours  to  secure  a  passable  translation  for  the 
Latin.  The  text  runs  as  follows:  Miltiades,  Cimonis 
filius,  Atheniensis,  cum  et  antiquitate  generis  et  gloria 
majorum  et  sua  modestia  tinus  omnium  maxime  floreret. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  1 3 

eaque  esset  aetate  ut  non  jam  solum  de  eo  bene  sperare, 
sed  etiam  confidere  cives  possent  sui  talem  eum  futurum 
qualem  cognitum  judicarunty  accidit  ut  Athenienses  Cher- 
sonesum  colonos  vellent  mittere. 

Probably  the  first  stumbling-block  to  the  pupil  will 
be  the  proper  rendering  for  modestia.  The  vocabulary 
gives  '  moderation,'  *  modesty,'  *  temperance,'  *  humility,' 
'  discretion,'  and  the  question  is,  which  one  of  these 
represents  the  idea  that  Nepos  is  trying  to  convey. 
The  pupil  has  to  pause  and  consider.  Reflection  shows 
that  '  humility  '  will  not  do,  and  '  modesty '  is  no  better. 
These  qualities  hardly  constitute  a  title  to  eminence. 
The  pupil,  therefore,  turns  to  '  moderation '  or  '  tem- 
perance.' The  latter  of  these  will  hardly  answer  his 
purpose;  it  has  an  unfortunate  acquired  connotation 
suggesting  predominantly  an  abstinence  from  strong 
drink.  Nor  will  'moderation'  satisfy  the  pupil's  sense  of 
the  demands  of  his  native  tongue,  for  we  hardly  speak  of 
a  man  eminent  for  his  moderation.  Of  the  five  words 
given  for  modestia,  therefore,  the  last  only,  *  discretion,* 
will  answer  in  the  present  passage.  The  pupil  then 
passes  to  the  following  words :  unus  omnium  maxime. 
Their  literal  translation  is  easy,  *  alone  of  all  especially ; ' 
but  this  is  jargon,  and  clearly  must  be  bettered  in  some 
way.  By  reflection,  the  pupil  comes  to  see  that  *  alone 
of  all '  may  be  rendered  by  our  *  beyond  all  others/  or 
some  other  equally  idiomatic  phrase.  But  here  a  new 
problem  presents  itself,  how  to  join  *  especially '  with 
'  beyond  all  others.*  Possibly  after  a  few  trials  the  boy 
hits  upon  the  device  of  rendering  *  far  beyond  all  others.* 
Whether  this  phrase  or  another  be  chosen,  however, 
may  depend  somewhat  upon  the  rendering  selected  for 
floreret ;  in  fact  at  each  point  in  a  translation  the  ren- 
dering must  be  regarded  as  possibly  only  temporary; 
one's  selection  of  words  and  phrases  will  often  require 


14  THE  JUSTIFICATIOAf   OF  LATIN 

modification  as  a  result  of  the  rendering  chosen  for 
other  parts  of  the  same  sentence.  The  pupil  meets  no 
further  special  difficulty  until  he  comes  to  qiialem  cog- 
iiitum  judicanmt.  Literally,  *  such  as  they  judged  him 
known.'  In  and  of  itself,  the  participle  may  mean  *  if 
known,*  '  though  known,'  '  when  known,'  *  since  known.' 
All  these  possibilities,  however,  must  be  weighed  be- 
fore a  safe  decision  can  be  reached  as  to  the  actual 
meaning  here. 

But  I  need  not  dwell  further  on  the  details  of  the 
process  we  are  considering.  Every  teacher  knows  what 
it  is ;  he  knows  that  it  is  serious  work,  often  slow  work, 
but  he  knows  what  it  means  to  the  pupil  who  submits  to 
it.  He  knows  that  such  a  pupil  is  gaining  a  mastery  over 
the  resources  of  his  mother  tongue.  Positive  knowledge, 
except  to  a  very  limited  degree,  he  is  not  gaining ;  but 
he  is  learning  what  words  mean ;  he  is  learning  to  dif- 
ferentiate related  concepts ;  he  is  acquiring  sense  for 
form  and  style,  and  if  he  be  so  fortunate  as  to  be  en- 
dowed with  any  native  gifts  of  thought  himself  when  he 
reaches  maturer  years,  he  has  that  indispensable  equip- 
ment of  the  educated  man,  —  the  capacity  to  say  what 
he  says  with  directness,  clearness,  precision,  and  effect. 

There  has  been  a  great  outcry  in  recent  years  about 
the  importance  of  English,  and  it  has  been  one  with 
which  I  think  the  body  of  thoughtful  men  have  in  large 
measure  sympathized.  All  have  cheerfully  acknowl- 
edged the  great  importance  of  an  ability  to  use  one's 
native  idiom  with  skill  and  power.  It  is  because  I  sym- 
pathize so  heartily  with  this  sentiment  that  I  enter  this 
defence  of  translation.  It  is  because  translation  from 
Latin  to  English  seems  to  me  such  a  stimulating,  vitaliz- 
ing exercise,  and  so  helpful  to  the  student  who  would 
attain  mastery  of  his  own  language,  —  it  is  because  of 
this  that  I  find  full  justification  for  the  study  of  Latin. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  1 5 

Perhaps  I  approach  this  subject  with  prejudice,  but  I 
can  never  forget  the  inspiration  of  my  own  early  Latin 
training,  nor  ever  fail  in  gratitude  to  the  teacher  who 
first  suggested  to  me  the  boundless  resources  of  our 
own  language,  who  by  his  own  happy  and  faithful  ren- 
derings of  Cicero  and  Virgil  stimulated  a  little  class  of 
us  to  do  our  best  to  make  our  own  translations  show 
truth,  and  strength,  and  literary  form.  Can  we  afford  to 
underrate  the  value  of  such  discipline?  How  many  a 
lad  has  felt  his  heart  kindle  and  his  ambition  rise  at 
some  happy  rendering  by  mate  or  teacher?  And  with 
what  persistence  these  little  niceties  of  phrase  cling  to 
us  and  influence  us?  Language  is  subtle.  We  cannot 
explain  its  charm  by  any  philosophy.  But  it  is  the  key 
to  literature,  and  our  own  language  must  ever  be  the 
best  key  to  our  own  literature. 

How  finely  Barrie  has  put  this  in  his  story  of  Tommy  ! 
Who  that  has  read  that  unique  description  of  the 
essay-contest  can  have  done  so  without  feeling  the 
profound  truth  it  contains?  You  remember  the  scene 
in  the  old  Scotch  school-house,  —  how  Tommy  and 
young  McLauchlan  had  been  given  paper  and  pen  and 
set  to  work  to  write  on  ''  A  Day  in  Church"  in  compe- 
tition for  the  Blackadder  Prize,  and  how  at  the  end  of 
the  time  allotted  Tommy  had  brought  himself  to  scorn 
for  the  lack  of  a  word.  ''What  word?"  they  asked 
him  testily ;  but  even  now  he  could  not  tell.  He  had 
wanted  a  Scotch  word  that  would  signify  how  many 
people  were  in  church  and  it  was  on  the  tip  of  his 
tongue,  but  would  come  no  farther.  "  Puckle  "  was  nearly 
the  word,  but  it  did  not  mean  so  many  people  as  he 
meant.  The  hour  had  gone  by  like  winking;  he  had 
forgotten  all  about  time  while  searching  his  mind  for 
the  word. 

Then  the  friends  who  had  been  waiting  in  confident 


1 6  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

expectation  of  Tommy's  victory  begin  their  reproaches. 
His  teacher,  Cathro,  is  the  first.  "  What  ailed  you  at 
'manzy'?"  hecries/'or" — .  "I  thought  of  *manzy/" 
replied  Tommy,  wofully,  for  he  was  ashamed  of  himself, 
''but — but  a  manzy 's  a  swarm.  It  would  mean  that 
the  folk  in  the  kirk  were  buzzing  thegither  hke  bees, 
instead  of  sitting  still." 

"  Even  if  it  does  mean  that,"  says  another  friend, 
"  what  was  the  sense  of  being  so  particular?  Surely  the 
art  of  essay-writing  consists  in  using  the  first  word  that 
comes  and  hurrying  on." 

"  That 's  how  I  did,"  proudly  says  McLauchlan,  the 
victorious  competitor. 

"  I  see,"  interposes  another  friend,  "  that  McLauchlan 
speaks  of  there  being  a  mask  of  people  in  the  church. 
*  Mask '  is  a  fine  Scotch  word." 

**  I  thought  of  *  mask,' "  says  Tommy,  "  but  that  would 
have  meant  the  kirk  was  crammed,  and  I  just  meant  it 
to  be  middhng  full." 

"  'Flow'  would  have  done,"  suggested  another. 

'"Flow"s  but  a  handful" 

"  *  Curran,'  then,  you  jackanapes." 

"  '  Curran'  's  no  enough." 

The  friends  throw  up  their  hands  in  despair. 

"  I  wanted  something  between  '  curran '  and  '  mask,' " 
said  Tommy,  dogged,  yet  almost  at  the  crying. 

Then  Ogilvy,  the  master  of  the  victorious  McLauchlan, 
but  whose  heart  is  secretly  with  Tommy,  and  who  with 
difficulty  has  been  hiding  his  admiration,  spreads  a  net 
for  him.  "  You  said  you  wanted  a  word  that  meant 
middling  full.  Well,  why  did  you  not  say  '  middling  fuir 
or  '  fell  mask '  ?  " 

"  Yes,  why  not?"  demanded  the  others. 

"  I  wanted  one  word,"  said  Tommy. 

"  You  jewel,"  muttered  Ogilvy  under  his  breath. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  1 7 

**  It 's  so  easy  to  find  the  right  word,"  reproachfully 
adds  another. 

"It's  no',  it 's  as  difficult  as  to  hit  a  squirrel."  Again 
Ogilvy  nods  approval.  But  Cathro,  Tommy's  master, 
can  restrain  himself  no  longer.  In  a  burst  of  fury  he 
seizes  Tommy  by  the  neck  and  runs  him  out  of  the 
parish  school  of  Thrums.  As  the  others  offer  their  con- 
gratulations to  Ogilvy,  master  of  the  victorious  Mc- 
Lauchlan,  the  school  door  opens  from  without,  and  the 
face  of  Tommy,  tear-stained  and  excited,  appears  once 
more.  "  I  ken  the  word  now;  it  came  to  me  a'  at  once; 
it  is  '  hantle.'  " 

"  Oh,  the  sumph !  "  exclaimed  McLauchlan ;  "  as  if  it 
mattered  what  the  word  is  now." 

But  Ogilvy  gives  his  McLauchlan  a  push  that  nearly 
sends  him  sprawling,  saying  in  an  ecstasy  to  himself: 
''  He  had  to  think  of  it  till  he  got  it;   and  he  got  it." 

When  Cathro  savagely  says,  "  I  have  one  satisfaction ; 
I  ran  him  out  of  my  school,"  Ogilvy  merely  answers, 
"  Who  knows  but  what  you  may  be  proud  to  dust  a 
chair  for  him  when  he  comes  back?" 

How  many  of  us  know  well  this  quest  for  the  right 
word  !  How  often  we  have  struggled  to  find  it  when  it 
was  n't  *  puckle  '  and  it  was  n't  '  manzy,'  nor  '  mask,'  nor 
*  flow,'  nor  '  curran,*  but  '  hantle  ' !  Sometimes  we  have 
found  it,  sometimes  we  have  missed  it;  but  the  quest 
has  ever  been  honourable,  and  has  helped  us  to  find  and 
know  the  way  to  truth. 

Cicero  was  well  aware  of  the  importance  of  what  I  am 
urging  when  he  wrote  those  memorable  words  in  his 
de  Optimo  genere  oratonim.  Despite  his  thor-  cicero's 
ough  familiarity  with  Greek,  he  confesses  that  Testimony, 
he  found  it  a  useful  exercise  to  translate  with  care  from 
Greek  to  Latin.  In  this  way  he  prepared  Latin  versions 
of  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown  and  of  Aeschines  against 


I8  THE  JUSTIP-ICATION  OF  LATIN 

Ctesiphon,  not  rendering  word  for  word,  but  preserving- 

the  style  and  spirit  of  these  two  orationes  nobilissiniaey 

weighing  their  words,  he  adds,  not  counting  them. 

Compare  also  what  Lowell  says.    Speaking  before  the 

Modern  Language  Association  in  1889,  after  a  life  of  wide 

observation   and  careful   reflection  upon  the 
Lowell. 

problems  of  education,  he  says :  *'  In  reading 

such  books  as  chiefly  deserve  to  be  read  in  any  foreign 
language,  it  is  wise  to  translate  consciously  and  in  words 
as  we  read.  There  is  no  such  help  to  a  fuller  mastery 
of  our  vernacular.  It  compels  us  to  such  a  choosing, 
and  testing,  to  so  nice  a  discrimination  of  sound,  pro- 
priety, position,  and  shade  of  meaning,  that  we  now  first 
learn  the  secret  of  the  words  we  have  been  using  or  mis- 
using all  our  lives,  and  are  gradually  made  aware  that 
to  set  forth  even  the  plainest  matter  as  it  should  be 
set  forth  is  not  only  a  very  difficult  thing,  calling  for 
thought  and  practice,  but  is  an  affair  of  conscience  as 
well.  Translation  teaches,  as  nothing  else  can,  not  only 
that  there  is  a  best  way,  but  that  it  is  the  only  way. 
Those  who  have  tried  it  know  too  well  how  easy  it  is  to 
grasp  the  verbal  meaning  of  a  sentence  or  of  a  verse. 
That  is  the  bird  in  the  hand.  The  real  meaning,  the 
soul  of  it,  that  which  makes  it  literature  and  not  jargon, 
that  is  the  bird  in  the  bush,  which  tantalizes  and  stimu- 
lates with  the  vanishing  glimpses  we  catch  of  it  as  it  flits 
from  one  to  another  lurking-place : 

Et  fugit  ad  salices  et  se  cupit  ante  videri. 

Lowell  may  not  have  been  a  great  teacher.  His  limi- 
tations in  the  class-room  were  probably  very  pro- 
nounced, but  that,  for  all  that,  he  possessed  by  nature 
and  training  a  clear  sense  for  what  is  vital  and  strength- 
ening in  education,  I  am  thoroughly  persuaded.  At  all 
events,  the  words  I  have  quoted  are  the  ones  I  have 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  1 9 

.always  heard  commended  when  mention  has  been  made 
of  the  address  in  which  they  are  found. 

This  transcendent  importance  of  translation  as  bear- 
ing upon  an  increased  mastery  of  one's  vernacular  is  so 
generally  recognised  by  educators  that  it  seems  worth 
while  to  cite  a  few  further  similar  expressions  of  opinion 
as  to  its  value.  Thus  we  find  Dettweiler  de-  ^  ^^^  „ 
daring  (Baumeister's  Handbuch  der  Erzie- 
himgs-  und  Unteimchtslehre,  in.  Lateinisck,  p.  22) :  **  We 
must  not  forget  that  the  real  strength  of  Latin  instruc- 
tion Hes  in  the  recognition  of  the  wide  difference  of 
ideas,  which  is  brought  out  in  the  choice  of  words  and 
phrases  as  one  translates  from  Latin  to  German.  .  .  . 
These  ends  we  must  reach  .  .  .  hy  a  constant  compari- 
son with  the  mother  tongue}  through  the  medium  of  a 
much  more  extensive  employment  of  translation  ^  than 
has  heretofore  prevailed."  At  a  later  point  (pp.  54  ff.) 
Dettweiler  dwells  more  fully  upon  this  topic.  After 
enumerating  a  number  of  special  principles  to  be  ob- 
served in  translation,  he  goes  on  to  say :  "  The  proper 
treatment  of  these  and  many  other  points  may  exercise 
an  absolutely  enormous  influence  upon  the  pupil's 
German  style.  The  Latin  language  in  its  means  and 
modes  of  expression  is  so  remote  from  our  own,  that 
the  form  of  translation  demands  the  exercise  of  a 
stylistic  power  the  appHcation  of  which  to  the  pupil 
must  in  future  constitute  one  of  the  noblest  tasks  of 
the  teachers  in  our  Gymnasien.  The  experience  of 
other  countries  which  is  often  cited  with  approval  may 
be  utilized  in  Germany  too.     In   France  and  Belgium 


1  The  italics  are  Dettweiler's,  /.  e.  they  correspond  to  the  spaced  type 
of  the  German. 

2  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  revised  courses  of  study  for  the  Prussian 
gymnasia  promulgated  in  1892  call  for  increased  attention  to  translation 
from  Latin  into  German. 


20  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

translations  from  Latin  are  regarded  as  an  admirable, 
exercise  in  expression.  In  England  the  superior  style 
of  the  gentr}^  is  ascribed  to  extensive  practice  in  trans- 
lating, and  it  is  well  known  how  Cicero  [see  above, 
p.  17],  that  supreme  stylist,  formed  his  style  by  practis- 
ing translation  from  the  Greek.  '  Translation  from  a 
foreign  language/  says  one  of  our  most  experienced 
school  officials,  '  is  a  lesson  in  German  that  cannot  be 
too  highly  prized,  and  is,  alas !  too  much  neglected. 
By  a  good  translation,  one  conforming  to  the  genius 
of  the  German  language,  instruction  in  German  is  most 
effectively  promoted.'  "  To  a  similar  effect  are  the 
remarks  of  Isaac  B.  Burgess  and  W.  C.  Collar  as  given 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 1896,  pp.  563  ff. ;  also  those  of  Laurie,  Lectures 
on  Language  ajid  Linguistic  Method,  p.  108 ;  Paton, 
in  Spencer's  Aims  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  p.  61 ; 
Shorey,  *'  Discipline  vs.  Dissipation,"  in  The  School  Re- 
view, 1897,  P-  228:  "  Every  hour  spent  by  the  student 
in  improving  the  accuracy  or  elegance  of  his  version  is, 
apart  from  its  practical  service  in  mobilizing  his  English 
vocabulary,  an  unconscious  philosophic  discipline  in 
the  comparison  of  two  sets  of  conceptual  symbols  and 
the  measuring  against  each  other  of  two  parallel  intel- 
lectual outgrowths  of  the  one  sensational  root  of  all 
our  knowledge.  Every  time  the  student  is  corrected 
for  washing  out  in  his  translation  some  poetic  image 
found  in  the  original,  he  receives  a  lesson  in  the  relation 
of  the  symbolizing  imagination  to  thought.  As  often 
as  he  discusses  with  the  teacher  a  Vv^ord  for  which  no 
apt  English  equivalent  can  be  found,  he  acquires  a  new 
concept  and  a  finer  conception  of  nice  distinctions. 
Whenever  an  apparently  grotesque  or  senseless  expres- 
sion is  elucidated  by  reference  to  the  primitive  or  alien 
religious  or  ethical  conception  or  institution  that  gives 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  21 

it  meaning,  he  receives  a  simple,  safe,  and  concrete 
lesson  in  comparative  religion,  ethics,  folk-lore,  anthro- 
pology, or  institutional  history,  as  the  case  may  be. 
And  as  often  as  he  is  forced  to  reconsider,  in  the  light 
of  the  context,  the  mechanically  memorized  meaning 
of  a  word  or  phrase,  he  has  impressed  upon  his  mind 
the  truth  which  the  student  of  the  more  rigid  working 
formulas  of  the  physical  sciences  is  so  apt  to  miss,  that 
words  are  not  unalterable  talismans,  but  chameleon-hued 
symbols  taking  shape  and  color  from  their  associates. 
The  effect  of  this  kind  of  discipline  is  unconscious, 
insensible,  and  cumulative.  It  cannot,  of  course,  cancel 
the  inequalities  of  natural  parts;  it  cannot  take  the 
place  of  practical  acquaintance  with  life  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  a  special  trade  or  profession.  But  pur- 
sued systematically  through  the  plastic  years  of  youth, 
it  differentiates  the  mind  subjected  to  it  by  a  flexibility, 
delicacy,  and  nicety  of  intellectual  perception  which 
no  other  merely  scholastic  and  class-room  training  can 
give  in  like  measure." 

The  English  training  derived  from  such  careful  trans- 
lation as  above  described  seems  to  me  greatly  superior 
to  that  gained  by  the  usual  methods  of  Eng-  xransiation 
lish  composition.  Original  composition  must  -u^.  Original 
necessarily  deal  only  with  the  ideas  already  ^position, 
present  in  the  pupil's  mind.  How  elementary  and 
crude  these  are  in  case  of  the  pupils  in  our  secondary 
schools,  is  a  fact  sufficiently  familiar  to  us  all.  The 
reflective  period  has  not  usually  begun  at  the  age  when 
the  pupil  enters  upon  the  secondary  education;  he 
finds  it  diflicult  to  write  an  English  theme  because  he 
has  nothing  to  write  about.  But  set  before  him  a  pas- 
sage of  Latin,  elevated  in  thought  and  well  expressed, 
with  the  problem  of  putting  this  into  the  best  English 


22  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

he  can  command;  in  the  first  place  he  is  relieved  of 
the  necessity  of  hunting  aimlessly  about  for  ideas  which 
do  not  exist  in  his  brain ;  and  in  the  second  place  he 
is  raised  above  the  plane  of  his  ordinary  thinking,  and 
in  this  higher  atmosphere  grows  familiar  with  concepts 
and  ideas  which  might  otherwise  long  remain  foreign 
or  at  least  vague  to  him.  All  things  considered,  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  I  beheve  there  is  a  considerable 
period  in  the  secondary  training  when  Latin  translation, 
if  rightly  conducted,  may  wisely  be  made  practically 
the  exclusive  instrument  of  special  instruction  in  English 
composition.  This  view,  too,  I  find,  is  shared  by  many. 
See  the  discussions  in  the  P^'oceedmgs  of  the  National 
Educational  Association,  1896,  p.  563  ff.,  especially 
p.  570.  Probably  no  teacher  who  has  ever  system- 
atically instituted  this  experiment  of  written  translations 
has  failed  to  regard  the  time  it  demanded  as  wisely 
expended. 

I  have  said  above  that  this  training  in  English  seemed 
to  me  to  form  a  larger  part  of  the  advantages  of  Latin 
other  Effects  Study  than  all  others  together.  Yet  the  other 
of  Latin.  advantages  are  by  no  means  insignificant. 
They  are  now  to  be  considered. 

Discussing  with  his  usual  sober  thoughtfulness  and 
lucidity  of  exposition  the  question :  Wherein  Popular 
Education  has  Failed,^  President  Eliot  lays  down  the 
four  essential  educational  processes  which  should  be 
involved  in  any  rational  and  effective  system  of  in- 
struction.    These  are : 

I.  The  process  of  "observation;  that  is  to  say,  the 
alert,  intent,  and  accurate  use  of  all  the  senses.  Who- 
ever wishes  to  ascertain  a  present  fact  must  do  it 
through  the  exercise  of  this  power  of  observation.  .  .  . 


1  American  Contributions  to  Civilization,  p.  203  flf. 


THE  JUSTIFICA  TION  OF  LA  TIN  23 

Facts,  diligently  sought  for  and  firmly  established,  are 
the  only  foundations  of  sound  reasoning." 

2.  "  The  next  function,  process,  or  operation  which 
education  should  develop  in  the  individual  is  the  func- 
tion of  making  a  correct  record  of  things  observed. 
The  record  may  be  mental  only,  that  is,  stamped  on 
the  memory,  or  it  may  be  reduced  to  writing  or  print. 
.  .  .  This  power  of  accurate  description  or  recording  is 
identical  in  all  fields  of  inquiry." 

3.  '*  The  next  mental  function  which  education  should 
develop,  if  it  is  to  increase  reasoning  power  and  general 
intelligence,  is  the  faculty  of  drawing  correct  inferences 
from  recorded  observations.  This  faculty  is  almost 
identical  with  the  faculty  of  grouping  or  coordinating 
kindred  facts,  comparing  one  group  with  another  or 
with  all  the  others,  and  then  drawing  an  inference 
which  is  sure  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  cases, 
instances,  or  experiences  on  which  it  is  based.  This 
power  is  developed  by  practice  in  induction." 

4.  "  Fourthly,  education  should  cultivate  the  power 
of  expressing  one's  thoughts  clearly,  concisely,  and 
cogently." 

These,  according  to  President  Eliot,  are  the  four 
essential  processes  of  the  educated  mind :  observing 
accurately;  recording  correctly;  comparing,  grouping, 
and  inferring  justly;  and  expressing  the  result  of  these 
operations  with  clearness  and  force. 

Now  it  is  precisely  these  four  processes  or  operations 
which  the  study  of  Latin,  when  well  taught,  promotes 
in  an  eminent  degree : 

I    The  study  of  Latin  trains  the  observing  faculty. 

To  fathom  the  meaning  of  a  Latin  sentence  requires  a 

whole  series  of  accurate  observations.     Thus 

,,  .,  ^,  1        •         ^  .  .  Observation. 

the  pupil  sees  the  word  egissent  m  a  sentence  ; 

he  observes  that  the  word  is  a  form  of  ago ;  he  takes 


24  THE  JUSTIFICA  TION  OF  LA  TIN 

note  of  the  voice,  mood,  tense,  person,  and  number; 
he  observes  its  position ;  he  may  make  other  observa- 
tions. Or  he  is  reading  poetry  and  comes  to  the  Hne, 
Si  qua  fata  sinafzt,  jam  turn  tenditque  fovetque.  The 
second  word  puzzles  him  at  first;  to  the  eye,  it  may 
be  either  a  nominative  plural  neuter  or  an  ablative 
singular  feminine  used  adverbially.  Observation  (scan- 
sion of  the  line)  teaches  him  that  the  latter  conclusion 
is  the  true  one. 

2.  Little  of  this  observation  is  recorded  in  speech  or 

writing  in  the  preparation  of  a  lesson,  but  it  is  recorded 

mentally,  which  according^  to  President  Eliot 
Recording.        .  •     ,  ,  t»t  ^ 

IS  entirely  adequate.     Moreover  the  process 

is  constant.     It  is  necessarily  so.     No  lesson  in  a  Latin 

author  can   be   adequately  prepared  without  sustained 

and  repeated  observing  and  recording  from  beginning 

to  end. 

3.  The  study  also  necessitates  the  most  thorough  and 
rigid  processes  of  reasoning.    The  pupil  has  observed  that 

a  certain  word  is  in  the  dative  case,  or  in  the 
subjunctive  mood,  and  has  made  also  a  mental 
record  of  the  fact.  He  now  proceeds  to  determine  the 
relationship  of  the  dative  or  subjunctive  to  other  words 
in  the  sentence.  This  demands  as  severe  an  exercise  of 
the  reasoning  powers  as  anything  I  know.  The  first 
combination  the  pupil  tries  may  be  found  to  be  gram- 
matically impossible;  it  offends  against  his  conscious- 
ness of  linguistic  usage.  Or  it  may  be  grammatically 
correct  and  yet  be  flatly  absurd  in  point  of  meaning. 
Or  it  may  make  only  a  half  satisfactory  sense,  some- 
what inconsistent  with  the  context.  Every  conscious 
endeavour,  however,  rightly  to  combine  and  accurately 
to  interpret  the  words,  phrases,  sentences,  and  para- 
graphs of  any  passage  of  a  Latin  author  is  an  exercise 
of  the  reason.     It  is  not,  to  be  sure,  an  exercise  of  the 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  2$ 

kind  expressly  mentioned  by  President  Eliot  in  his  al- 
lusions to  the  process  of  reasoning  as  one  of  the  indis- 
pensable results  of  a  rational  education.     He 
^  ,        .  --.11    Induction  not 

mentions  only  mductive  processes  as  entitled  the  only 

to  recognition  in  this  sphere,  and  by  impli-  ^'^^ 
cation  excludes  all  recognition  of  deductive 
reasoning.  This  seems  to  me  extremely  unfortunate 
and  unjust.  Both  processes  are  legitimate  in  education  ; 
neither  is  to  be  disparaged.  President  Eliot's  position 
seems  to  be  that  only  the  inductive  reasoning  of  the 
observational  sciences  is  reasoning  properly  so-called. 
Yet  of  the  popular  fallacies  and  delusions  which  Presi- 
dent Ehot  enumerat-es  (p.  224  f.),  and  which  he  justly 
deplores,  few,  when  evaded  by  intelligent  and  educated 
men,  are  evaded  by  processes  of  inductive  reasoning. 
How  many  of  the  intelligent  men  who  opposed  the  free- 
silver  heresy  in  this  country  in  1896  did  so  as  the  result 
of  inductive  reasoning?  Any  such  reasoning  faintly 
deserving  the  name  would  be  simply  impossible  for  the 
average  educated  man.  The  process  by  which  opinions 
must  be  formed  by  most  men  on  such  matters  is  one 
of  deductive  reasoning.  Only  the  specialist  can  reason 
inductively  on  such  great  questions,  where  honest  settle- 
ment by  inductive  processes  demands  almost  infinite 
time  and  pains,  not  to  speak  of  special  training.  The 
minds  of  the  great  majority  of  thoughtful  men  must 
work  otherwise.  Faith  in  the  honesty,  intelligence,  and 
patriotism  of  others  is  probably  the  major  premise  in 
the  minds  of  most  of  us  in  determining  our  attitude  on 
large  questions.  The  minor  premise  is  the  view  of  some 
earnest,  trained,  and  sagacious  statesman  or  student  of 
affairs  in  whom  we  trust.  Our  conclusion,  therefore, 
represents  the  view  of  another  person,  logically  made 
our  own  by  deductive  process.  Oftener  perhaps  our 
own  views  on  such  matters  are  formed  as  a  result  of 


26  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

comparing  the  views  of  many  others  rather  than  by- 
adopting  the  view  of  any  individual.  In  such  cases  we 
adopt  the  preponderance  of  authority  or  the  preponder- 
ance of  evidence  furnished  by  others  and  assumed  by 
us  to  be  fairly  complete.  But  the  process  is  still  deduc- 
tive. So  in  most  of  the  serious  things  of  life  :  our  choice 
of  a  vocation,  our  preparation  for  its  duties,  our  diet 
and  recreation,  the  education  of  our  children,  our  social, 
religious,  and  political  affihations,  —  all  these  must  of 
necessity  be  determined  by  deductive  processes  of  rea- 
son, so  far  as  they  are  determined  by  reason  at  all.  I 
cannot  help  thinking,  therefore,  that  President  Eliot  at- 
tributes too  important  an  educational  function  to  pro- 
cesses of  inductive  reasoning,  and  allows  such  processes 
a  much  larger  play  than  they  can,  under  any  conceiv- 
able conditions,  ever  have  in  the  practical  life  of  any 
individual.  At  all  events,  I  think  it  proper  to  insist  on 
a  recognition  of  the  part  which  deductive  reasoning 
must  always  play  in  nine  tenths  of  the  lives  of  the  most 
conscientious  of  us,  and  to  urge  this  fact  as  of  impor- 
tance in  estimating  rightly  the  value  of  the  deductive 
reasoning  so  inevitably  associated  with  the  study  of 
Latin  and  other  languages. 

4.  Lastly,  the  study  of  Latin  involves  in  translation 
constant  practice  in  expressing  the  results  of  one's  ob- 
serving, recording,  and  reasoning.  Whether 
this  be  clear,  concise,  and  cogent,  as  Presi- 
dent  Eliot  would  have  it,  is  a  matter  entirely  within  the 
power  of  the  teacher  to  determine.  But  I  am  confident 
that  no  teacher  fit  to  be  intrusted  with  giving  Latin 
instruction,  or  in  fact  any  instruction,  will  neglect  this 
most  important  and  crowning  feature  of  Latin  study. 

Latin,  then,  would  seem  fairly  to  fulfil  all  the  important 
functions  demanded  by  President  Eliot  as  essential  in  a 
rational  system  of  teaching.     Yet  he  himself  is  inclined 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  2/ 

to  look  askance  at  the  present  predominance  of  Latin 
and  other  language  studies  in  the  curricula  of  our  sec- 
ondary schools.  Though  not  specifically  declaring  it,  he 
impHes  his  distrust  in  the  efficacy  of  language  study  to 
achieve  any  of  the  results  which  must  be  admitted  by 
all  to  be  so  eminently  important. 

To  me  all  these  results  seem  to  flow  of  necessity  from 
the  study  of  Latin.  Even  with  poor  teaching,  observ- 
ing, recording,  reasoning,  and  expressing  are  necessary 
daily  processes  of  the  pupil's  intellectual  Hfe.  This  may 
explain  why  even  poor  Latin  teaching  often  seems  to 
have  an  educative  influence.  Where  the  teaching  is  of 
first-rate  quahty,  the  processes  referred  to  are  naturally 
given  an  accuracy,  a  power,  and  clearness  of  form,  which 
cannot  fail  to  prove  of  the  highest  educative  power. 

It  is,  of  course,  manifest  that  the  foregoing  arguments 
in  favour  of  studying  Latin,  if  valid,  apply  at  least  in 
some  measure  to  other  languages  than  Latin,  ^ 
and  many  persons  doubtless  will  be  incHned  Modern 
to  advocate  the  advantages  of  French  or  Ger-  ^^^uages. 
man,  as  superior  to  those  of  Latin.  While  not  denying 
the  usefulness  of  both  those  languages  when  taught  with 
discrimination,  yet,  if  one  language  only  can  be  studied, 
I  see  two  reasons  for  giving  Latin  a  decided  preference 
to  either  French  or  German.  In  the  first  place  the 
concepts  and  ideas  of  the  Latin  language  are  much 
remoter  from  those  of  English  than  are  those  of  the 
modern  languages.  All  modern  thought  is  essentially 
kindred.  The  same  intellectual  elements,  so  to  speak, 
are  common  to  all  civilized  nations,  —  particularly  to 
nations  so  closely  in  touch  as  the  English,  French,  and 
German.  This  is  not  true  when  we  come  to  study 
either  of  the  ancient  languages.  The  ultimate  elements 
of  the  thought,  i.  e.  the  language  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  are  as  different  from  our  own  as  is  their  entire 


28  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

civilization.  It  is  precisely  this  fundamental  difference 
which  makes  either  of  the  classical  languages  of  such 
invaluable  discipline.  At  every  stage  of  study  we  are 
brought  in  contact  with  new  phases  of  thought,  new 
ideas ;  —  the  intellectual  horizon  is  continually  widen- 
ing. The  modern  languages,  on  the  other  hand,  suggest 
relatively  much  less  that  is  new.  Both  the  matter  and 
the  manner  of  expression  are  so  directly  in  the  line 
of  our  ordinary  knowledge  and  speech,  as  to  give  mlich 
less  occasion  to  processes  of  comparison  or  to  that 
stimulating  intellectual  grapple  which  is  essential  to 
mental  growth.  This  is  particularly  true  of  French, 
whose  thought-forms  are  so  closely  kindred  to  our  own. 
It  is  less  true  of  German,  though  even  that  language 
suggests  vastly  fewer  differences  in  ideas  —  and  con- 
sequently vastly  fewer  opportunities  for  comparison  — 
than  does  either  Greek  or  Latin. 

There  is  yet  another  reason  which  I  should  urge  in 
favour  of  Latin  as  compared  with  either  of  the  modern 
languages,  and  that  is  that  Latin  has  supplied  us  with 
so  large  a  share  of  our  own  vocabulary.  Just  what  the 
exact  percentage  of  such  words  in  English  is,  I  do  not 
know.  Nor  is  it  material.  The  number,  at  any  rate, 
is  very  large,  and  covers  every  department  of  thought. 
For  this  reason  no  educated  person  can  safely  under- 
take to  dispense  with  a  knowledge  of  the  root  words  of 
the  Latin  language.  I  mean  no  such  knowledge  as 
comes  from  memorizing  a  list  of  the  commoner  roots 
and  suffixes  along  with  their  meanings,  but  a  knowledge 
at  first  hand,  and  sufficiently  comprehensive  and  thor- 
ough to  enable  one  to  feel  the  full  significance  of  the 
primary  words  of  the  Latin,  a  knowledge  which  reveals 
at  once  the  full  value  of  such  English  Words  as  connota- 
tion,  speciousness,  integrity,  desultory ^  temperajice,  induc- 
tion, deduction,  abstract,  ingenuotis,  absolute,  and  scores 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  29 

of  others  whose  precise  apprehension  marks  the  edu- 
cated man.  This  point  has  been  strongly  though  briefly 
emphasized  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  W.  T. 
Harris,  in  "  A  Brief  for  Latin,"  Educational  Review^ 
April,  1899.  See  also  Paton,  in  Spencer,  Ai7ns  and 
Practice  of  Teachitig,  p.  41  f. 

To  the  two  foregoing  theoretical  reasons  for  prefer- 
ring Latin  to  French  or  German  as  an  instrument  of 
secondary  education,  must  be  added  a  third  reason, 
more  cogent  even  than  those  already  empha-  Testimony  of 
sized,  namely,  experience.  I  believe  it  well  Experience, 
within  the  limits  of  accuracy  to  assert  that  no  one  who 
has  had  actual  experience  with  the  teaching  of  either 
of  the  modern  languages  to  pupils  of  the  same  age 
and  intellectual  power  will  for  a  moment  venture  to 
compare  the  intellectual  profit  attained  from  French  or 
German  with  that  derived  from  Latin.  In  fact,  so  far 
as  we  have  any  testimony  on  this  point,  there  is  a  strik- 
ing unanimity  of  judgment  in  favour  of  Latin.  Speak- 
ing at  the  first  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  in  the  Middle  States 
and  Maryland  {Proceedings,  1893,  p.  59),  Principal  Mac- 
kenzie, discussing  the  question,  "Will  any  kind  or 
amount  of  instruction  in  modern  languages  make  them 
satisfactory  substitutes  for  Greek  or  Latin  as  constitu- 
ents of  a  liberal  education  ?  "  said :  "  Twenty-three  years 
ago,  when  I  was  a  school-boy  at  one  of  our  foremost 
academies,  there  was  no  scientific  or  English  ^  course,  — 
no  course,  that  is,  without  Latin.  Those  who  know  the 
history  of  that  school  for  the  century  closing  in  the 
seventies,  know  her  brilliant  achievements  in  developing 
mental   power   with   Latin  as  the  staff  of  the  pupil's 


^  The  scientific  or  English  courses  regularly  omit  Latin,  and  include 
either  French  or  German,  or  both  French  and  German. 


30  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

mental  life.  Meantime,  in  company  with  all  our  fitting 
schools,  she,  too,  has  established  an  English  side  with- 
out Latin.  I  could  give  no  umbrage  nor  be  chargeable 
with  indelicacy  were  I  to  repeat  the  statements  made 
to  me  by  her  teachers  as  to  the  unfavourable  change  in 
the  intellectual  tone  and  character  of  the  institution. 
There  are  in  this  Association  an  earnest,  skilful,  experi- 
enced body  of  teachers  connected  with  our  high-schools 
and  other  schools  of  secondary  grade;  I  have  yet  to 
meet  one  such  teacher  who,  administering  courses  of 
study  both  with  and  without  one  or  two  of  the  classical 
languages,  does  not,  however  reluctantly,  affirm  that 
satisfactory  scholarship  is  found  only  on  the  so-called 
classical  side,  and  that,  therefore,  no  satisfactory  sub- 
stitute for  Greek  and  Latin  has  yet  been  found."  Sub- 
sequently President  B.  I.  Wheeler,  then  Professor  of 
Greek  at  Cornell,  declared  it  his  conviction  that  French 
and  German  cannot  compare  with  the  classics  as  effec- 
tive instruments  of  secondary  education,  "  simply  be- 
cause they  don't."  These  positive  assertions  based  on 
experience  went  absolutely  unchallenged  in  the  pro- 
tracted discussion  of  the  question  which  followed. 
Compare  also  the  testimony  of  an  English  educator, 
Mr.  Paton,  in  Spencer,  Aims  and  Practice  of  Teaching, 
p.  44:  "Many  argue  that  French  and  German  would 
be  just  as  efficient  [as  Latin],  but  their  contention  has 
never  been  practically  demonstrated."  Similar  testi- 
mony comes  from  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium,  to 
the  effect  that  those  boys  who  have  received  a  classical 
training  are  on  the  whole  superior  to  those  who  have 
received  a  training  only  in  the  modern  languages 
(Fouill6e,  Education  from  a  National  Standpoint,  p. 
167).  Fouillee  {ibid.,  footnote)  adds:  ''One  of  our 
most  eminent  critics  [Ferdinand  Brunetiere],  before 
his   connection  with  the  Revue  des  Deux  MondeSy  was 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  3 1 

on  the  staff  of  the  Ecole  Normale  Sup^rieure,  and 
taught  French  Hterature  to  the  pupils  at  the  College 
Chaptal,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the  mathematical 
students  at  the  Lycee  Louis-le-Grand  and  the  College 
Sainte-Barbe.  At  Chaptal  almost  every  boy  passed 
through  his  hands,  as  he  took  each  class  some  time  or 
other  during  the  week,  and  in  this  way  he  knew  the 
boys  in  six  classes,  of  course  of  varying  ages.  Now, 
says  M.  Brunetiere,  *  I  feel,  after  this  experience  gained 
under  exceptional  conditions,  that  for  opening  the  mind 
and  for  general  development,  for  a  knowledge  of  our 
own  tongue,  and  for  literary  skill,  the  boys  who  instead 
of  a  classical  training  have  received  a  purely  French 
education,  with  the  addition  of  modern  languages,  are 
at  least  two  and  perhaps  three  years  behind  their 
fellows.'  At  Louis-le-Grand  and  Sainte-Barbe,  M. 
Brunetiere's  pupils  had  done  Latin  and  Greek  grammar 
only,  and  had  never  had  a  thorough  grounding  in  that, 
intending  to  devote  themselves  at  an  early  period  ex- 
clusively to  mathematics.  Here  again  the  superiority 
of  even  a  little  classical  training  was  equally  marked. 
These  observations,"  adds  Fouillee,  *'  agree  with  my 
own  while  I  was  engaged  in  teaching."  Such  testimony 
might  be  multiplied  almost  indefinitely. 

From  this  verdict  of  experience  we  can  hardly  venture 
to  appeal,  until  experience  has  new  and  different  contri- 
butions with  which  to  support  the  claims  of  the  equality 
of  the  modern  languages  with  Latin  as  educational 
instruments.  The  position  of  those  who  have  advo- 
cated the  equality  of  French  or  German  on  theoretical 
grounds  is  well  represented  by  the  late  Professor 
Boyesen.  In  his  remarks  before  the  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle  States 
and  Maryland  (Proceedings,  1893,  p.  38  ff.),  he  lays 
stress   on   the   admirable   quality   of   the   French   and 


32  THE  JUSTIFICATION   OF  LATIN 

German  literatures,  comparing  them  favourably  with  the 
classical  masterpieces.  But  the  training  of  the  second- 
ary pupil  who  is  studying  a  foreign  language,  as  was 
shown  above,  is  primarily  Imgiiisticy  not  literary.  Liter- 
ary study  enters  in  to  some  extent,  to  be  sure,  but  the 
main  benefit  of  the  study  must  come  after  all  from  the 
minute  study  of  the  elements  of  the  thought,  not  from 
the  contemplation  of  its  larger  literary  aspects.  And 
it  is  precisely  on  this  hnguistic  side  that  French  and 
German  exhibit,  as  compared  with  Latin,  such  a  strik- 
ing lack  of  adaptation  to  the  ends  of  a  truly  liberal 
training. 

It  is  for  the  foregoing  reasons  that  I  feel  justified  in 
urging  the  superiority  of  Latin  to  either  of  the  modern 
languages  as  an  educational  instrument  in  our  secondary 
schools.  Experience  may  ultimately  prove  French  and 
German  entitled  to  relatively  greater  consideration  than 
we  can  at  present  concede  to  them,  though  the  theo- 
retical grounds  against  any  such  eventual  result  seem 
very  strong. 

As  to  Greek,  for  the  pupil  of  the  secondary  school  I 
am  reluctantly  forced  to  give  it  a  place  second  to  Latin. 
I  do  this  chiefly  because  Greek  has  contributed  so  much 
less  to  our  own  English  vocabulary  than  has  Latin. 
These  estimates  of  educational  values,  however,  by  no 
means  imply  that  one  or  even  more  of  the  other  lan- 
guages mentioned  may  not  wisely  be  added  to  Latin  in 
the  secondary  school.  I  most  certainly  believe  that  this 
should  be  done  wherever  practicable,  and  would  advo- 
cate the  combination  of  two  languages,  as,  for  example, 
Latin  and  Greek,  Latin  and  German,  or  Latin  and 
French.  Latin,  however,  I  should  insist  upon  as  the 
basal  study  for  all  pupils  of  the  secondary  school  who 
are  capable  of  pursuing  it.  More  than  two  languages 
(Latin  for  four  years  and  Greek,  German,  or  French 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  33 

for  three  years),  I  should  not  suggest  for  an  individual 
pupil,  though  I  am  well  aware  that  the  colleges  are 
enforcing  demands  in  this  direction.  With  all  the 
advantages  and  allurements  of  language  study,  I  feel  that 
we  can  easily  go  too  far,  and  may  do  damage  by  neg- 
lecting other  sides  of  the  pupil's  intellect. 

I  have  enlarged  sufficiently  upon  what  seem  to  me 
the  primary  ends  of  Latin  study  in  the  secondary 
school,  namely,  the  power  of  accurate  observation,  the 
development  of  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  the  supe- 
rior facilities  it  affords  for  training  in  our  own  language, 
by  which,  as  I  explained,  is  meant  not  merely  the  ap- 
prehension of  words,  but  the  assimilation  of  ideas  for 
which  the  words  are  merely  symbols.  Incidentally,  too, 
we  considered  the  fact  that  the  study  of  Latin  gives 
us  the  needed  insight  into  the  precise  meaning  of  a  vast 
number  of  English  words  derived  from  Latin,  and  that, 
by  taking  us  out  of  ourselves,  the  study  of  Roman  life 
and  thought  gives  us  a  broader  view  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  ideas  and  institutions,  —  what  Laurie  calls 
the  "  universal,"  as  opposed  to  the  merely  **  national" 
point    of    view    {^Language    and    Linguistic    Method, 

P-  3  f.)- 

There  are  yet  other  humanizing  influences  of  the 
study,  which,  though  of  less  importance,  yet  deserve  to 
be  emphasized.  Among  these  must  be  reck-  mstoricai 
oned  "dispositive  knoivledge  of  Roman  history.  Training. 
thought,  and  institutions  which  comes  from  the  study 
of  Latin.  No  one  can  get  so  good  a  view  of  the  per- 
sonality of  that  great  organizer  Julius  Caesar,  as  the 
intelligent  reader  of  Caesar's  own  narrative ;  no  one  can 
so  appreciate  the  constitution  and  workings  of  the 
Roman  republic  as  the  pupil  who  reads  the  pages  of 
Sallust's  Jugurtha  and  Catiline  or  Cicero's  Orations 
and  Letters ;  no  one  can  so  appreciate  the  one  dom- 


34  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

inant  principle  of  all  Roman  civilization,-—  the  power 
of  organization  and  administration  combined  with  a 
sense  of  imperial  destiny,  —  as  he  who  comes  face  to 
face  with  that  sentiment  in  the  Latin  authors.  These 
are  examples  merely  of  the  almost  infinite  suggestive- 
ness  of  Latin  study  along  historical  and  institutional 
lines ;  —  not  that  the  study  of  Latin  should  or  can 
replace  a  formal  study  of  Roman  history  and  institu- 
tions, but  it  can  and  should  serve  to  supplement  such 
study. 

I  shall  venture  to  emphasize  also  the  value  of  the 
training  of  the  aesthetic  and  moral  sense  which  must 
iEsthetic  come  to  every  mind  of  ordinary  endowment 
Training.  y^y  contact  with  the  masterpieces  of  Latin 
writing  usually  read  in  our  secondary  schools.  Here 
again  I  shall  quote  the  words  of  Professor  Shorey  ("  Dis- 
cipHne  vs.  Dissipation,"  School  Review^  1897,  P-  228  f.), 
"  This  scholastic  study  of  language,  through  the  careful 
interpretation  of  selected  literary  masterpieces,  is  a 
totally  different  thing  both  from  mere  gerund-grinding 
and  the  acquisition  by  conversational  methods  of  the 
courier's  polyglot  facility.  It  is  essentially  a  study  of 
literature,  —  a  fact  overlooked  by  those  who  declaim 
against  language  while  protesting  their  devotion  to 
Hterature;  and  it  is  the  only  form  in  which  literature 
can  be  taught  to  young  students  that  offers  serious 
guarantees  of  the  indispensable  accompanying  disci- 
pline. It  trains  the  intellect  in  close  association  with 
the  sense  for  beauty  and  the  sense  for  conduct  as  no 
other  studies  can.  .  .  .  The  iridescent  threads  of  culti- 
vated and  flexible  aesthetic  and  ethical  institutions  must 
be  shot  through  the  intellectual  warp  of  the  mind  at  the 
loom.  They  cannot  be  laid  on  the  finished  fabric  like 
an  external  coat  of  paint.  The  student  who  between 
the  years  of  twelve  and  twenty  has  thrilled  at  the  elo- 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  35 

quence  of  Cicero  or  Demosthenes,  has  threaded  the 
mazes  of  the  Platonic  dialectic,  has  laughed  with  Aris- 
tophanes, has  pored  over  the  picturesque  page  of  Livy, 
or  apprehended  the  sagacious  analysis  of  Thucydides, 
has  learned  to  enjoy  the  curious  felicity  of  Horace  and 
the  supreme  elegance  and  tender  melancholy  of  Virgil, 
has  trembled  before  the  clash  of  destiny  and  human 
will  in  the  drama  of  ^schylus  and  Sophocles,  has  been 
cradled  in  the  ocean  of  Homeric  song,  or  attuned  his 
ear  to  the  stately  harmonies  of  Pindar,  —  the  student,  I 
say,  who  has  received  this  or  a  Hke  discipline  in  the 
great  languages  and  literatures  of  the  world,  has  insen- 
sibly acquired  the  elementary  materials,  the  essential 
methods,  and  the  finer  intuitive  perceptions  of  the 
things  of  the  spirit,  on  which  all  more  systematic  study 
of  the  mental  and  moral  sciences  must  depend." 

We  have  dwelt  sufficiently  upon  the  various  reasons 
for  studying  Latin  in  the  secondary  school.     It  remains 
to    discuss   briefly   some    of   the    objections 
which  have  been  urged  against  the  study  at  urged  against 
this  stage  of  education.^  ^*^* 

In  1 86 1  Herbert  Spencer  published  his  work  on  Edu- 
cation:  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical,  consisting  of  a 
series  of  four  essays  which  had  previously  ap-  Hertwrt 
peared  in  various  English  Reviews.  I  shall  not  spencer, 
have  the  presumption  to  question  the  importance  and 
value  of  these  essays  as  permanent  contributions  to  the 
discussion  of  educational  problems.  Yet  with  regard  to 
the  value  of  at  least  one  classical  language  in  any  adequate 
scheme  of  secondary  education,  Spencer  is  singularly  un- 
just. The  title  of  the  first  essay  is :  "  What  knowledge 
is  of  most  worth?"     In  discussing  this  question  no  at- 


1  It  is  impracticable  here  to  discuss  any  utterances  except  those  of  a 
few  representative  thoughtful  students  of  education. 


36  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

tempt  at  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  educational 
value  of  different  studies  is  instituted.  On  page  23, 
Spencer  observes :  "  If  we  inquire  into  the  real  motive 
for  giving  boys  a  classical  education,  we  find  it  to  be 
simply  conformity  to  public  opinion.  ...  As  the  Ori- 
noco Indian  puts  on  his  paint  before  leaving  his  hut, 
not  with  a  view  to  any  direct  benefit,  but  because  he 
would  be  ashamed  to  be  seen  without  it,  so  a  boy's 
drilling  in  Latin  and  Greek  is  insisted  on,  not  because 
of  their  intrinsic  value,  but  that  he  may  not  be  dis- 
graced by  being  found  ignorant  of  them." 

This  is  the  sum  and  substance  of  Spencer's  examina- 
tion of  the  worth  of  the  pursuit  of  either  Latin  or  Greek. 
The  bulk  of  this  first  essay,  the  title  of  which  assumes  at 
least  an  honest  attempt  to  institute  a  candid  inquiry  con- 
cerning the  relative  value  of  different  subjects,  is  devoted 
to  an  exposition  of  the  thesis  that  the  study  of  science  is 
of  some  worth  to  some  people,  —  nothing  more.  Grant- 
ing for  the  sake  of  argument  that  this  thesis  is  ade- 
quately established,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  other 
subjects  are  of  less  worth  or  that  Latin  is  of  no  worth. 
Herbert  Spencer  has  often,  and  with  great  acumen,  justly 
convicted  other  thinkers  of  unwarranted  assumptions 
and  bad  logic,  but  in  the  present  instance  he  seems  to 
cap  the  climax  in  his  absolute  begging  of  the  question 
at  issue.  The  value  of  Latin  can  never  be  proved  or 
disproved  by  discussing  the  value  of  something  else,  nor 
can  it  be  proved  or  disproved  by  passionate  declarations 
of  its  worth  or  worthlessness.  Spencer  unfortunately 
has  not  attempted  to  go  beyond  these  methods ;  and  it 
is  doubly  unfortunate  that  this  attitude  has  been  as- 
sumed by  a  thinker  who  usually  exhibits  such  excep- 
tional seriousness,  candour,  and  intellectual  integrity,  and 
the  influence  of  whose  utterances  must  inevitably  be  so 
great. 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  37 

Much  more  commendable  is  the  procedure  of  Alex- 
ander Bain  in  Education  as  a  Science  (London  and 
New  York,  1881).  In  chapter  x.,  "Value 
of  the  Classics,"  Bain  seriously  undertakes 
to  estimate  the  worth  of  Latin  and  Greek,  Unfortu- 
nately he  does  not  limit  the  question  to  any  period 
of  education,  nor  does  he  seem  to  recognise  that  the 
question  of  the  study  of  Latin  alone  is  a  radically  differ- 
ent question  from  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek.  His 
discussion,  however,  is  one  that  commands  our  attention. 
Bain  first  sets  forth  the  alleged  advantages  of  studying 
the  classics,  and  then  the  drawbacks.  His  conclusion  is 
that  the  latter  decidedly  outweigh  the  former.  It  is 
impossible  here  to  take  up  his  arguments  in  detail,  but 
it  is  to  be  noted  that,  among  the  advantages  of  the 
study,  Bain  practically  ignores  the  transcendent  value 
of  the  increased  intellectual  power  derived  from  the 
study  of  the  classics,  and  the  mastery  acquired  over  the 
resources  of  one's  mother  tongue,  /.  e.,  over  the  ideas 
which  form  the  highest  intellectual  elements  of  our 
national  life,  —  the  very  things  which  we  set  down 
above  as  constituting  the  prime  reason  for  studying 
Latin.  Of  the  other  assumed  advantages  of  the  study 
of  the  classics,  Bain  finds  no  one  of  sufficient  weight  to 
be  entitled  to  great  respect.  On  the  other  hand  he  enu- 
merates four  positive  objections  to  the  study :  ms 
I.  The  cost  is  great.  2.  The  mixture  of  Objections, 
conflicting  studies  distracts  the  learner.  3.  The  study 
is  devoid  of  interest.  4.  The  classics  inculcate  the  evil 
of  pandering  to  authority. 

As  to  the  cost,  it  must  be  admitted  that  Latin  does 
cost.  It  takes  time  and  labour.  If  pursued  as  a  daily 
study  in  our  American  schools  for  four  years,  it  claims 
one-third  of  the  entire  secondary-school  curriculum. 
The  real  question    for  us,  however,  and  the  question 


38  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

which  Bain  professes  to  be  examining,  is  the  question  of 
value.  To  the  discussion  of  that  question  the  consider- 
ation of  cost  is  irrelevant.  When  we  have  determined 
the  value  of  Latin,  the  question  of  cost  may  properly 
influence  the  pupil's  choice  in  individual  cases,  but  it 
cannot  affect  the  question  of  value  any  more  than  the 
length  of  one's  purse  determines  the  value  of  a  fine 
watch. 

That  the  study  of  Latin  is  devoid  of  interest  (Bain's 
third  objection),  or  that  it  inspires  a  bhnd  pandering 
to  authority  (his  fourth  objection),  is  contrary  to  my 
own  experience,  and  I  believe  to  that  of  teachers  in  this 
country.  I  can  only  conclude  that  Bain  is  here  advanc- 
ing arguments  which,  if  vaHd,  are  so  only  in  Great 
Britain. 

More  importance  attaches  to  Bain's  second  objection, 
which  I  intentionally  reserve  till  the  last.  The  mixture 
of  conflicting  purposes,  he  adds,  distracts  the  learner, 
i.  e.  he  would  contend  that  it  is  distracting  to  the  pupil 
of  Latin  to  be  gaining  in  intellectual  grip  and  breadth 
of  vision,  to  be  mastering  the  resources  of  his  mother 
tongue  (/.  e,  the  higher  elements  of  the  national  life  of 
which  he  is  a  member),  to  be  gaining  a  profounder 
insight  into  the  thought,  life,  and  institutions  of  the 
Romans,  to  be  advancing  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
aesthetic  and  moral  senses,  —  to  be  doing  all  these  at 
one  and  the  same  time.  I  see  no  answer  to  make  to 
this  objection  beyond  declaring  that  experience  does 
not  seem  to  me  to  bear  out  its  truth,  any  more  than 
experience  shows  that  the  study  of  Latin  is  devoid  of 
interest  or  that  it  inculcates  a  blind  respect  for  author- 
ity.  On  the  other  hand,  experience  seems  to  me  to 
show,  and  to  show  abundantly,  that  all  the  results  whose 
contemporaneous  realization  Bain  declares  to  be  so  dis- 
tracting, do  actually  flow  from  the  study  of  Latin.     The 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  39 

reason  they  do  flow  is,  in  my  judgment,  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  not  consciously  sought  by  either  pupil  or 
teacher.  Were  such  the  case,  I  am  quite  prepared  to 
believe  that  the  joint  quest  would  prove  distracting  and 
even  futile.  Fortunately,  however,  the  valuable  results 
of  studying  Latin  are  indirect  results,  while  Bain's  objec- 
tion seems  to  have  been  formulated  as  a  result  of  the 
erroneous  conviction  that  the  valuable.,  ends  of  Latin 
study  are  always  present  to  the  pupil's  consciousness. 
It  is  really  their  absence  from  his  consciousness  which 
is  the  salvation  of  the  study. 

Less  radical  in  his  attitude  toward  the  value  of  Latin 
in  secondary  education  is  Friedrich  Paulsen,  who  in 
1885  published  his  important  Geschichte  des 
gelehrten  Unterrichts  auf  den  deutschen  Schu- 
len  und  Universitdten  vom  Ausgatig  des  Mittelalters  bis 
zur  Gegenwart  mit  besonderer  Rucksicht  auf  den  klas- 
sischen  Unterricht.  Paulsen's  criticisms  upon  classical 
education  as  at  present  organized  and  conducted  in 
German  secondary  schools  {Gyimiasien  and  Realschu- 
len)  are  embodied  in  his  concluding  chapter.  Before 
proceeding  to  their  consideration,  however,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  get  clearly  before  our  minds  the  status  of 
classical  education  in  Germany.  In  the  Gynmasien  and 
Realgymnasien  Latin  is  studied  for  nine  years,  —  from 
about  the  tenth  year  to  the  nineteenth;  while  in  the 
Gymjtasien  Greek  also  is  studied  for  six  years,  —  from 
about  the  thirteenth  year  to  the  nineteenth.  A  total  of 
fifteen  years  of  study  is  therefore  regularly  devoted  to 
the  classics  in  the  Gymnasien.  Another  element  that 
enters  into  the  situation  is  that  the  amount  of  work  in 
classics  and  other  branches  combined  has  long  been 
something  enormous  for  the  student  of  the  Gymnasien. 
For  two  generations  the  UeberbUrdungsfrage  has  been 


40  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

one  uppermost  in  educational  discussion.  Accordingly 
when  Paulsen  undertakes  to  show  the  evils  of  existing 
conditions,  and  when  he  urges  earnestly  and  cogently 
the  dropping  of  Greek  and  the  radical  retrenchment  of 
Latin,  we  must  be  exceedingly  cautious  what  conclu- 
sions we  draw  from  his  observations  for  the  study  of 
Latin  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States. 
The  time  now  spent  on  Latin  in  a  German  Gymnasium 
or  Realgymnasium  is  more  than  equal  to  that  spent  by 
most  graduates  of  our  American  colleges  who  have  pur- 
sued Latin  continuously  from  the  lowest  grade  of  the 
high  school  to  the  termination  of  their  college  course. 
A  retrenchment  of  Latin  in  the  German  Gymnasien, 
therefore,  may  be  entirely  compatible  with  the  main- 
tenance of  the  existing  attention  given  to  Latin  in  this 
country,  or  even  with  its  extension. 

Paulsen  nowhere  goes  so  far  as  to  advocate  the  aban- 
donment of  Latin  as  an  instrument  of  German  second- 
ary education.  His  attitude  on  this  point  I  believe  has 
largely  been  misunderstood  in  this  country,  owing 
mainly  to  the  prevalent  incapacity  of  many  minds  to 
dissociate  Latin  and  Greek.  Paulsen's  attitude  as  re- 
gards Greek  is  practically  uncompromising.  For  the 
great  body  of  students  he  is  convinced  it  would  better 
be  abandoned,  but  as  regards  Latin,  he  nowhere  goes 
beyond  the  demand  for  retrenchment.  Thus  on  p.  762, 
while  declaring  positively  that  the  present  ideal  of  clas- 
sical education  in  Germany  must  pass  away,  he  unhesi- 
BeUevesin  tatingly  asserts  his  belief  that  Latin  must 
Retaining  continue  to  be  indispensable.  As  to  the 
amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  study 
we  get  an  expression  of  opinion  on  p.  774,  where  Paul- 
sen thinks  that  the  study  may  profitably  be  pursued 
through  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  —  presumably  to 
the  end  of  Oberteriia,  or  five  years  in  all.     On  p.  782 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  4I 

he   even  goes  so  far  as  to  admit  that  experience  may 

show  that  for  certain  classes  of  students  the  traditional 

classical  course  will  still  be  necessary.     But  in  the  main 

Paulsen's  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  classics,  Latin  as 

well  as  Greek,  is  an  exceedingly  low  one.    Let  us  briefly 

consider  his  reasons. 

First,  he  complains  that  classical  training  as  pursued  in 

Germany  does  not  exert  any  marked  influence  upon  the 

pupils'  German  style.     In  fact  he  goes  so  far 

1  11  -11        Alleged 

as  to  assert  that  men  who  have  enjoyed  the    Defective 

classical  training  are  conspicuously  lacking  in  ^J!^^***. 
any  sense  for  form,  and  the  typical  scholar  is 
nothing  less  than  a  laughing-stock,  —  a  handy  conven- 
tional figure  largely  utilized  in  popular  comedy  to  pro- 
voke merriment.  This  indictment  is  severe,  and  if  well 
grounded  certainly  constitutes  a  weighty  argument 
against  the  pursuit  of  Latin.  But  Paulsen's  testimony 
is  contradicted  by  his  own  countrymen,  e.  g.  by  Dett- 
weiler,  quoted  above,  p.  18  f.  It  is,  I  believe,  contradicted 
also  by  the  impressions  received  by  most  Americans  in 
their  contact  with  German  gymnasial  graduates  fre- 
quenting the  German  universities.  However,  for  us 
Americans  the  question  is  not  one  to  be  settled  by  the 
experience  of  Germany.  The  question  for  us  is,  whether 
Latin  produces  certain  results  upon  our  own  pupils. 

Another  of  Paulsen's  arguments  is  to  the  eflect  that, 
after  all,  vital  results  in  education  emanate  from  the 
personality  of  the  teacher,  not  from  the  subject.  Cer- 
tainly there  can  be  no  underrating  of  the  effect  of  per- 
sonaHty  in  the  teaching  of  any  branch ;  but  that  fact  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  large  question,  whether 
there  are  not  vast  differences  between  the  educational 
values  of  different  subjects.  Until  experience  faintly 
demonstrates  the  contrary,  we  must  believe  such  differ- 
ences exist ;   and  so  long  as  they  do,  the  influence  of 


42  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

personality  in  teaching  can  hardly  be  considered  as 
bearing  upon  the  question  at  issue.  Even  Paulsen  him- 
self, by  the  way,  candidly  admits  that  the  ancient  clas- 
sics do  afford  an  unusual  opportunity  for  the  effective 
exercise  of  personal  influence,  or  at  least  that  they 
would,  were  it  not  that  iaability  to  understand  the  lan- 
guage in  which  they  are  written  constitutes  an  impassa- 
ble barrier  between  teacher  and  pupil.  But  it  is  difficult 
for  an  American  who  has  witnessed  the  brilliant  inter- 
pretations of  the  classics  in  the  upper  forms  of  the 
Gymnasieii  to  credit  the  general  existence  of  any  such 
barrier. 

Paulsen  passes  on  to  urge  that  the  pursuit  of  the 
classics  does  not  tend  to  promote  that  sympathy,  charity. 
Moral  and  brotherly  love  which  might  be  expected 

Influence,  from  the  humanities.  But  certainly  Paulsen's 
own  volume  teaches  us  most  clearly  that  the  humanities 
(jtudia  hiimaniord)  were  never  so  designated  because 
they  were  supposed  to  make  men  humane,  in  the  sense 
of  sympathetic  and  charitable.  Humanism  was  but  the 
revolt  from  schofesticism :  the  one  made  God  the  ex- 
clusive object  of  speculation ;  the  new  tendency  empha- 
sized 7nan,  his  achievements,  capacities,  and  aspirations. 
The  implication,  therefore,  that  the  classics  are  specially 
under  obligations  to  make  men  kindly  and  charitable  is 
one  hardly  justified  by  the  designation  '  humanities,'  nor 
has  it  ever  been  the  professed  ideal  of  these  studies.  But 
let  us  look  at  the  facts  adduced  by  Paulsen  in  support 
of  his  charge  that  the  study  of  the  classics  promotes 
strife,  hatred,  pride,  and  all  uncharitableness.  He  cites 
a  letter  of  Jakob  Grimm,  in  which  complaint  is  made 
that  of  all  branches  of  knowledge  none  is  more  arrogant, 
more  contentious,  and  less  indulgent  toward  the  short- 
comings of  others  than  philology.  Goethe  also  writes 
in  a  similar  strain  to  Knebel.     But  philology  is  not  con- 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  43 

fined  to  the  classics ;  it  includes  the  modern  languages 
as  well,  even  German,  which,  as  we  shall  later  see,  is 
specially  recommended  by  Paulsen  to  take  the  place  of 
Greek  and  Latin  in  the  reformed  program.  Goethe's 
indictment  also  is  not  directed  against  the  classics,  but 
against  Hberal  studies  in  general.  But  neither  of  these 
men  was  considering  the  effects  of  any  of  these  studies 
upon  pupils.  They  were  obviously  alluding  to  the 
exhibitions  of  jealousy  and  rivalry  manifested  between 
scholars  of  eminence.  Such  exhibitions  must  always  be 
a  more  or  less  frequent  result  of  keen  intellectual  com- 
petition. They  are  no  more  frequent  in  classical  phil- 
ology than  in  other  departments.  Nothing  can  exceed 
the  virulence  of  some  of  the  recent  polemical  hterature 
evoked  in  Germany  by  the  higher  criticism  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. Even  philosophy  (another  subject  which  Paulsen 
cordially  endorses  as  a  substitute  for  the  classics)  is  not 
without  its  amenities,  and  I  vividly  recall  the  polemic  of 
a  leading  German  investigator  in  this  field,  in  which 
words  were  used  that  English  literature  has  not  tolerated 
since  the  days  of  Swift.  Natural  science,  too,  has  not 
been  exempt,  —  a  study  which  Grimm  and  Goethe 
seemed  to  think  more  adapted  to  the  development  of 
a  *'  sweet  reasonableness."  Such  may  have  been  the 
case  in  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  It 
may  still  be  so.  But  certainly  in  the  United  States 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  one  of  my 
clearest  boyhood  recollections  is  of  the  vehement  per- 
sonal invectives  hurled  against  each  other  by  two  emi- 
nent paleontologists. 

Paulsen  will  attach  no  weight  to  the  fact  that  men, 
even  professional   men,  who    have    enjoyed  the  severe 
classical  training  of  the  Gyinnasien,  are  prac-  g^j^  phases 
tically  a  unit  in  their  advocacy  of  retaining 
this    instruction    in  its  present  form.     These    men,   he 


44  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

asserts,  are  actuated  not  by  any  educational  considera- 
tions, they  are  not  impressed  with  any  sense  of  the 
value  of  the  training  they  have  received.  What  actu- 
ates them  is  social  pride,  an  aristocratic  sense  of  the 
recognised  superiority  which  their  education  has  con- 
ferred. They  wish  to  perpetuate  the  caste  in  all  its 
glory.  How  just  this  imputation  of  motives  is,  it  is  of 
course  impossible  for  us  to  determine,  but  one  hesitates 
to  believe  it  well  founded.  At  all  events,  in  this  country 
no  one  will  charge  the  existence  of  such  sentiments  as 
a  factor  in  the  adjustment  of  educational  problems. 

Paulsen's  last  argument  is  based  upon  the  observable 
educational  tendencies  of  the  last  four  centuries.  Ever 
Tendency  of  since  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  the 
the  Times.  relative  importance  of  the  classics  has  been 
diminishing.  There  was  a  time  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century  when  these  studies  practically  monopolized  the 
field  of  learning.  Each  succeeding  century  has  seen 
their  relative  importance  diminish.  Paulsen's  reasoning 
is  that  ultimately  their  place  must  vanish,  and  that  that 
era  has  in  fact  arrived.  But  any  such  argument  based 
upon  the  operation  of  a  tendency  is  likely  to  be  falla- 
cious. No  one  can  say  with  certainty  how  long  a  given 
tendency  may  operate.  The  record  of  the  American 
trotting  horse  has  been  reduced  in  the  last  twenty-five 
years  from  two  minutes  seventeen  and  one-quarter  sec- 
onds to  a  fraction  over  two  minutes.  But  he  would  be 
bold  who  should  predict  that  this  tendency  will  go  on 
without  limit.  Similarly,  educational  policies  can  hardly 
be  determined  on  the  basis  of  observed  tendencies. 
They  must  be  settled  rather  in  the  light  of  existing 
conditions. 

As  substitutes  for  Greek  and  for  so  much  of  Latin  as 
it  is  proposed  to  banish,  Paulsen  suggests  the  introduc- 
tion of  philosophy  and  German.     We  hardly  need  to 


THE  JUSTIFICA  TION  OF  LA  TIN  45 

discuss  the  value  of  the  former  of  these  studies.  If  in- 
troduced into  the  Gymnasiett,  it  is  obvious  that  philoso- 
phy could  be  intended  only  for  the  two  higher  proposed 
classes  of  the  Gymnasium,  a  department  of  Substitutes, 
education  lying  beyond  what  we  designate  as  secondary, 
and  corresponding  rather  to  the  lower  years  of  our 
American  colleges.  But  the  proposition  to  introduce 
German  as  a  substitute  for  the  classics  invites  our  care- 
ful attention,  for  if  it  is  sound  for  Germany,  it  is  also 
sound  for  us  to  replace  the  study  of  either  or  both  the 
classical  languages  by  the  study  of  English.  My 
reasons  for  questioning  the  soundness  of  the  general 
principle  involved  are  two : 

I.  Experience  has  never  shown  that  any  study  of  the 
vernacular  is  capable  of  yielding  results  in  anyway  com- 
parable with  those  secured  from  the  study  of  inadequacy  of 

other  lane^uages.     In  fact  experience  has  so  a  study  of  the 

Vernacular 
frequently    illustrated    the    reverse    as    prac- 
tically to  have  demonstrated  the  impossibility  of  secur- 
ing such  results.     2.    ^^flection,  too,  reveals  adequaJj^-^ 

wrir  fnir  laidipying^that  the  study  of  thevernacu- 
lar  never  can^pr^^ZZoL^Jiy  ver^Tlrtlgtr^ducatlv^  value. 
The  case  has  been  so  well  stated  by  Fouillee,  Educa- 
tion from  a  National  Standpoint,  p.  108,  that  I  quote 
his  words :  "  From  the  point  of  view  of  individual  de- 
velopment, the  study  of  the  mother  tongue  is  only 
sufficient  in  the  case  of  exceptionally  gifted  minds. 
Secondary  education  should  be  regulated  according  to 
the  average,  and  not  according  to  exceptional  students. 
Now,  on  the  average,  to  the  culture  essential  to  the 
humanities,  the  study  of  a  tongue  other  than  the  mother 
tongue  is  the  shortest  and  surest  method.  A  French- 
man, for  instance,  has  a  quick  mind  and  a  versatile 
intellect ;  but  the  very  facility  with  which  he  uses  his 
intellect  does  not  leave  him  enough  time  for  reflection. 


46  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

When  a  French  boy  is  reading  a  French  book,  unless  he 
enjoys   unusual  reflective  faculties,  his  mind  is  carried 
away  by  the  general  sense,  and  the  details  and  shades 
of  expression    escape    him.     As    M.    Rabier   says,    '  A 
French  child  reading  a  page  of  Pascal  or  Bossuet  does 
not  fully  grasp  it,  i.  e.  only  half  grasps  it.'     Exercises 
and  translations  force  the  child  to  weigh  every  word,  to 
ascertain  its  exact  meaning,  to  find  its  equivalent;   he 
must  also  consider  the  inter-relations  of  the  ideas  and 
words  in  order  to  fix  the  sense  concealed  in  the  text ; 
finally,  he  must  transpose  the  whole  from  one  language 
to  another,  just  as  a  musician  transposes  an  air.     The 
final  result  is  that  he  has  repeated  for  himself  the  labours 
of  the    thinker   and    writer;    he    has    re-thought   their 
thoughts,  and  has  revived   the   living  form  which  was 
organic  to  the  writer's  thought.     He  has  had  to  repro- 
duce a  work  of  art.     A  cursory  perusal  of  works  in  the 
mother  tongue  is  rather  like  a  stroll  through  a  museum ; 
translation  from  one  language  to  another  is  like  copying 
a  picture ;   the  one  makes  amateurs,  the  other  artists. 
In  this  way  the  sense  of  depth  and  form  are  simultane- 
ously  acquired."      My   own    experience    confirms   this 
view.     For  some  years  I  was  connected  with  one  of  our 
large   universities,  in  which    there  was    an  "  English " 
course.     The  preparation  for  admission  to  this  course 
included    neither   classics    nor   modern    languages,   but 
was  based  primarily  upon  English  itself.     For  years  the 
students  who  presented  themselves  for  admission  with 
this  English  preparation   were  recognised  as  the  most 
deficient  in  intellectual  strength  and  training  of  any  who 
came  up  to  the  University.     Nothing,  I  believe,  but  a 
desire  to  give  the  experiment  the  fairest  possible  trial 
prevented  the  early  abolition  of  that  course. 

In  conclusion,  Paulsen  calls  for  the  exercise  of  more 
common  sense  in  the  organization  of  education,  partic- 


THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN  4/ 

ularly  in  the  establishment  of  the  curriculum.  Common 
sense,  he  adds,  suggests  that  languages  are  learned  to 
be  understood,  and  the  inference  is  that,  if  understand- 
ing them  is  not  obviously  of  transcendent  value,  then 
their  study  is  profitless.  All  the  fine  phrases  about  the 
discipline  and  culture,  he  adds,  supposed  to  result  from 
language  study  are  likely  to  make  no  appeal  to  sturdy 
common  sense.  If  by  sturdy  common  sense  is  meant 
the  instinctive  conclusion  of  the  common  man  who  has 
given  no  serious  thought  to  the  problems  of  education, 
Paulsen  is  probably  right,  but  can  we  safely  intrust  the 
interests  of  our  higher  education  to  such  hands? 

Such  are  Paulsen's  arguments  against  the  study  of 
Greek  and  Latin  in  the  German  secondary  schools,  and 
such  are  the  substitutes  he  proposes.     I  have     Review  of 
considered  them  partly  because  they  repre-     Paulsen's 
^  '  ,  1      •  r  •         /  i-i,-    1  Objections, 

sent  the  conclusions  ot  an   emment  thmker 

and  earnest  student  of  educational  problems,  partly 
because  by  many  in  this  country  Paulsen  is  popularly 
supposed  to  have  demonstrated  finally  the  absolute  lack 
of  any  raison  d'etre  for  the  study  of  either  of  the  classical 
languages.  Our  examination  of  his  arguments  shows,  I 
think,  that  they  are  very  far  from  justifying  the  radical 
changes  which  he  proposes  in  German  secondary  edu- 
cation. Much  less  do  they  warrant  a  lack  of  confidence 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  classics  as  pursued  in  this  country ; 
while,  as  regards  Latin,  Paulsen  expressly  recognises  the 
justification  of  retaining  quite  as  much  as  is  ordinarily 
pursued  in  American  secondary  schools. 

In  conclusion  we  may  state  the  case  for  Latin  briefly 
as  follows : 

Reason  and  experience  show  that  Latin  in  secondary 
education  is  capable  of  producing  intellectual  results  of 
great   positive   value,    practically   indispensable  to  the 


48  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  LATIN 

educated  man.     Experience  has  not  yet  shown  that  any 

other  subject  (excepting  possibly  Greek)  is  capable  of 

producing   equally   good    results.     Theorists 
Summary.     ,  rii 

have  often  asserted  the  equal  value  of  other 

subjects,  or  at  least  have  asserted  the  capacity  of  other 
subjects  to  yield  as  good  results.  Some  of  these 
theories,  e.  g.  that  in  favour  of  the  study  of  modern 
languages,  that  in  favour  of  the  study  of  the  vernacular, 
we  subjected  to  criticism  with  a  view  to  showing  their 
defects.  Still  the  empirical  argument  must  ever  be  the 
stronger,  and,  say  what  one  may,  the  stubborn  fact 
remains  of  the  unique  educational  influence  exercised 
by  Latin.  By  this  it  is  not  for  a  moment  meant  to 
disparage  the  legitimate  functions  of  a  single  other 
study.  Their  special  value  is  ungrudgingly  conceded. 
But  in  the  Hght  of  our  present  knowledge,  it  seems  a 
plain  educational  duty  to  adhere  to  Latin  as  admirably 
meeting  a  distinct  educational  need  which  is  not  met 
by  any  of  the  other  subjects  with  which  we  are  so  often 
urged  to  replace  it. 

At  present,  however,  the  danger  seems  to  be  not 
that  too  few  will  study  Latin,  but  rather  too  many. 
A  Possible  Latin  is  a  difficult  subject,  and  the  peculiar 
Danger.  educative  power  it  possesses  is  not  capable 
of  being  exercised  upon  all  minds, —  only  upon  those 
of  a  certain  natural  endowment.  In  our  intense  democ- 
racy we  are  perhaps  at  times  inclined  to  forget  that 
no  constitutional  declarations  of  czvi/' equality  can  ever 
make,  or  were  ever  intended  to  recognise,  an  intellectual 
equality  between  the  individual  members  of  the  nation. 
Latin  is  good  for  those  whose  gifts  enable  them  to 
profit  by  its  study.  It  is  not,  however,  capable  of 
popular  distribution  like  so  much  flour  or  sugar. 
Because  Latin  is  a  highly  effective  instrument  for  the 
training  of  certain  minds,  we  must  not  think  that  the 


THE  JUSTIFICA  TION  OF  LA  TIN  49 

efficiency  is  contained  in  the  subject /^r  se  ;  there  must 
exist  in  the  pupil  the  mental  endowment  requisite  to 
profit  by  Latin ;  else  the  time  spent  upon  the  study  is 
worse  than  wasted.  Observation  convinces  me  that 
many  parents  and  pupils  labour  from  a  serious  miscon- 
ception on  this  point,  and  that  many  are  ambitious  to 
study  Latin  whom  nature  has  not  endowed  with  the 
capacity  to  benefit  by  its  pursuit. 

The  present  enormous  increase  in  the  number  of 
Latin  pupils  in  our  American  secondary  schools  seems 
to  justify  calling  attention  to  possible  dangers  in  this 
direction. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   BEGINNING  WORK 

In  the  beginning  work  we  are  confronted  with  what 
is  probably  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the  entire  range 
Difficulty  of  of  elementary  Latin  instruction.  The  pupil 
the  Prowem.  ^j^q  j^  his  early  study  fails  to  become  well- 
grounded  in  the  elements  of  Latin  —  who  fails  to  secure 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  forms  and  of  the  leading 
principles  of  syntax  —  is  at  once  put  at  an  immense 
disadvantage.  The  chances  are  that  he  becomes  dis- 
couraged, and  that  his  continuance  in  the  work  will 
prove  increasingly  uninteresting  and  increasingly  profit- 
less to  himself,  as  well  as  increasingly  burdensome  to 
his  teachers.  The  proper  conduct  of  the  beginning 
work  also  makes  the  severest  demands  upon  the  knowl- 
edge and  skill  of  the  teacher.  Too  often,  beginners  are 
intrusted  to  inexperienced  instructors  on  the  general 
theory,  apparently,  that  the  lower  the  class  the  easier 
it  is  to  instruct  it.  But  in  every  subject  I  believe  that, 
if  there  must  be  differences,  the  ablest  and  wisest  teacher 
should  be  put  in  charge  of  the  beginning  work.  "  Aller 
Anfang  ist  schwer,"  says  Goethe.  Certainly  this  is  pre- 
eminently true  of  Latin.  Only  the  well-trained  teacher, 
whose  knowledge  of  Latin  is  accurate  and  broad,  is 
qualified  wisely  to  direct  the  first  steps  of  the  begin- 
ner. For  only  such  can  and  will  inculcate  that  indis- 
pensable precision,  and  only  such  can  judge  what  things 
are  of  vital  importance  and  must  be  learned  now,  and 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  5 1 

what  things  are  less  essential  and  may  be  deferred  to  a 
later  time. 

Even  for  a  well-trained  and  accurate  Latinist,  the 
difficulties  that  beset  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the 
beginning  work  are  very  great.  Some  of  them  are 
inherent  in  the  subject;  some  of  them  are  connected 
with  the  choice  of  method  to  be  pursued.  Their  num- 
ber and  importance  makes  it  desirable  to  consider 
them  under  different  heads.  I  shall  discuss  succes- 
sively I.  The  Beginner's  Book.  II.  Pronunciation. 
III.  The  *'  Inductive  "  Method.  IV.  Reading  at  Sight. 
V.  Unseen  Translation.      VI.  Easy  Reading. 

I.   The  Beginner's  Book. 

No  problem  is  greater  than  the  wise  choice  of  the  first 
book  to  be  put  into  the  beginner's  hands.     The  plan  of 
the  beginner's  book  used  in  this  country  has 
been  rapidly  and  radically  changing  in  the    ner's  Book 
last   twenty   years.     Twenty   years   ago   the    yeS^A^. 
pupil   usually  began  with  the  Latin  Gram- 
mar and  the  Latin   Reader.     The  Grammar  served  to 
give  the  facts  of  pronunciation,  accent,  declension,  con- 
jugation, etc.,  while  the  Reader  gave  parallel  exercises 
illustrative  of  the  parts  of  the  Grammar  assigned  from 
day  to  day.     The  development  naturally  followed    the 
arrangement   of   the   Grammar,   i.  e.   the   pupils   were 
taught   the    five    declensions   in   succession,   then    the 
adjective,  pronouns,  and  the  four  conjugations.     Dur- 
ing the  acquisition  of  the  forms  little  attention  was  paid 
to  syntax.     Only  a  few  indispensable  principles  of  the 
most  elementary  kind  were   introduced    at  this   stage, 
such  as  the  rules  for  the  predicate  noun,  appositive, 
subject,  object,  agreement  of  adjective  with  noun,  etc. 
After  the  acquisition  of  the  forms,  and  before  the  com- 


52  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

mencement  of  the  regular  reading  of  a  continuous  text, 

the  beginner's  attention  was  directed  to  the  elementary 

syntactical  principles  of  the  language.     Here  again  the 

Grammar   was   used   as   the   basis   of  instruction,  and 

the   different  constructions  studied  were  accompanied 

by  parallel  illustrative  sentences  in  the  Reader.     Like 

the  study  of  the  forms,  the  study  of  the  syntax  followed 

the   order  of  the  Grammar,  i.  e.  all  the   constructions 

of  one  case  were   treated   together,  and    all   the   case 

constructions  preceded  the  constructions  of  mood  and 

tense.     This  method  of  study  yielded  excellent  results. 

Boys   learned   their   forms   with    accuracy,    they    early 

became  familiar  with  the  Grammar,  and  so  laid  a  solid 

foundation   for   future   work.     This   plan   of 
A  Defect.       .  ^ 

instruction,    however,   involved    one    feature 

which  exposed  it  to  attack  from  the  theoretical  side ; 
it  was  urged  that  the  isolated  fragmentary  words  and 
phrases  given  in  the  Reader  as  parallel  exercises  to  the 
Grammar  were  irrational.  During  the  acquisition  of 
the  declension  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns,  and 
largely  during  the  study  of  the  conjugations,  the  pupil 
was  fed  in  the  Reader  on  these  isolated  words  and 
phrases.  Complete  sentences  were  almost  unknown,  — 
necessarily  so  until  the  verb  was  reached.  Now,  it  was 
urged  that  it  was  an  injustice  to  the  pupil  to  be  confined 
for  weeks  together  to  such  unnatural  exercises  as 
Dionysii  tyranni ;  eqimm  Balbi ;  vobis ;  templum  quod- 
dam;  audiveris  ;  simto  ;  laudatos  esse,  etc.  The  justice 
of  this  position  is  fairly  debatable,  but  debate  now  is 
hardly  necessary.  To-day  the  use  of  the  Grammar 
The  Typical  ^"^  Reader  as  above  described  is  a  thing  of 
Beginner's  the  past.  For  two  decades  the  beginner's 
Book  of  To-  boo]^  YidiS  been  coming  into  more  and  more 
general  use,  until  to-day  its  reign  is  prac- 
tically universal.     These   books   are   usually   complete 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  $3 

in  themselves.  They  contain  all  the  grammar  supposed 
to  be  essential  for  the  beginning  pupil,  along  with 
copious  illustrative  sentences.  Representing  as  they 
do,  also,  a  reaction  against  the  old  Reader  with  its  iso- 
lated words  and  detached  phrases,  they  introduce  com- 
plete sentences  at  the  start.  This  is  accomplished  by 
treating  certain  parts  of  the  verb  in  the  very  earliest 
lessons. 

Had  the  makers  of  these  books  contented  themselves 
with  remedying  what  they  characterized  as  the  crying 
defect  of  the  old  Reader,  the  result  would  not  have 
been  so  bad.  But  they  have  gone  much  further.  Most 
of  these  manuals  are  absolutely  without  plan  unsyste- 
in  their  distribution  of  material.  Bits  of  the  matic. 
noun,  adjective,  adverb,  verb,  and  pronoun  are  found  scat- 
tered here  and  there  throughout  the  book,  interspersed 
with  various  syntactical  rules,  now  on  the  noun,  now  on 
the  verb,  now  on  one  case,  now  on  another.  The  most 
cursory  glance  at  almost  any  one  of  the  dozens  of 
beginner's  books  published  in  recent  years  will  amply 
confirm  the  accuracy  of  this  statement. 

The  plan  of  these  books  has  long  seemed  to  me 
pedagogically  unsound,  and  in  practice  I  fear  they  have 
not  enabled  us  to  realize  the  best  results  in  our  element- 
ary Latin  teaching.  To  me  it  seems  undeniable  that 
pupils  to-day  are  conspicuously  inferior  in  the  mastery 
of  their  inflections  to  the  pupils  of  twenty  years  ago, 
as  well  as  conspicuously  inferior  in  their  general  famili- 
arity with  the  Latin  Grammar.  This  observation  I  find 
is  quite  general.  The  complaint  comes  from  Harvard 
even,  situated  though  it  is  in  the  centre  of  the  finest 
preparatory  schools  of  the  country,  —  schools  whose 
efficiency  ought  to  increase,  not  diminish,  with  time. 
Both  these  results  I  trace  in  large  measure  directly  to 
the  type  of  beginner's  books  now  in  vogue ;  as  regards 


54  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

the  former,  at  least,  I  do  not  see  how  it  can  possibly 
be  assigned  to  any  other  source. 

Let  us  examine  more  closely  the   defects  of  these 
books.     My  criticisms  will  cover  three  heads : 
Defects  in  I-  They  separate  things  that  logically  be- 

Detau.  long  together ;  also,  in  endeavouring  to  relieve 

the   memory   and   to  promote   interest,   they   sacrifice 
accuracy  of  knowledge. 

2.  They  separate  things  in  the  early  stages  of  teach- 
ing which  must  later  be  associated. 

3.  In  introducing  the  translation  of  English  into  Latin 
before  the  forms  are  thoroughly  mastered,  they  involve 
a  serious  expenditure  of  time  without  any  corresponding 
gain. 

My   first   criticism  was   that   things   which   logically 

belong  together  are  in  these  books  separated  from  one 

another.     Thus  the  five  declensions  seem  to 

of  what  "le  more  like  each  other  than  like  anything 

tSter  ^^^^ '  ^^^  ^^"^^  ^^  ^^"^  ^^  ^^  pronouns  taken 

as  a  whole;  it  is  also  true  of  the  four  con- 
jugations of  regular  verbs,  and  even  of  the  irregular 
verbs  taken  as  a  whole.  So  also  in  the  case  of  the 
syntax,  the  different  constructions  of  the  genitive, 
the  dative,  the  accusative,  or  the  ablative,  the  uses  of 
the  subjunctive,  seem  to  me  more  like  each  other  than 
like  anything  else.  This  intimate  logical  relationship  is 
explicitly  recognised,  too,  in  all  Latin  grammars  with 
which  I  am  acquainted.  Now  both  reason  and  experi- 
ence have  for  years  constantly  tended  to  strengthen  my 
conviction  that  facts  which  logically  belong  together 
are  most  easily  acquired  by  being  learned  in  conjunction 
with  one  another,  and  that  it  is  a  fundamental  psycho- 
logical mistake  to  dissociate  such  facts  in  teaching. 
Thus  the  pupil  who  is  studying  Roman  private  antiqui- 
ties, for  instance,  can  hardly  expect  to  secure  an  easy 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  55 

mastery  of  his  subject  if  in  one  lesson  he  learns  a  few 
facts  about  the  Roman  house,  a  few  more  about  the 
toga,  coupled  with  isolated  allusions  to  the  modes  of 
marriage  and  the  methods  of  disposal  of  the  body  after 
death.  Similarly,  the  pupil  who  acquires  in  one  lesson 
a  bit  of  a  verb,  a  paradigm  of  a  declension,  the  inflec- 
tion of  a  pronoun,  along  with  a  rule  for  the  use  of  the 
infinitive,  and  then  in  the  next,  perhaps,  the  principles 
for  the  use  of  cmUy  the  formation  of  adverbs,  and  the 
conjugation  of  possum^  —  such  a  pupil,  I  say,  seems  to 
me  to  be  put  at  an  enormous  psychological  disadvan- 
tage in  his  acquisition  of  the  really  essential  facts  whose 
thorough  mastery  is  so  indispensable. 

A  certain  theory  of  interest  is,  I  am  well  aware,  some- 
times urged  in  defence  of  the  prevaihng  plan,  but  it  is 
a  serious  question  whether  interest  is  really  The  Theoiy 
promoted  by  a  plan  which  does  violence  to  °*  interest 
obvious  psychological  laws,  and,  even  if  interest  were 
promoted,  whether  it  would  be  wise  to  make  so  great  a 
sacrifice  for  the  end. 

The  combination  of  a  study  of  syntax  with  the  forms 
results  apparently  from  the  same  motive,  —  that  of 
increasing  the  interest  of  the  subject  by  in-  ^^^„^  Q^gj.- 
creasing  its  variety.  trainiiig  of 

It  is  frequently  urged,  too,  that  the  old  ^  emory. 
method  of  vigorous,  aggressive  attack  upon  the  para- 
digms (and  upon  them  alone  until  mastered)  involved 
a  training  of  the  memory  at  the  expense  of  other  facul- 
ties; hence  the  justification  of  combining  the  study  of 
syntax  with  that  of  the  declensions  and  conjugations. 
But  even  were  the  study  of  syntax  taken  up  more  sys- 
tematically, I  am  convinced  that  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  pursue  its  study  in  conjunction  with  the  study  of  the 
forms.  It  can  hardly  fail  to  distract  the  energy  of  the 
beginning  Latin  student  to  be  studying  contemporane- 


56  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

ously  two  things  so  different  as  forms  and  syntax.  Any 
such  plan  necessarily  precludes,  or  at  least  enormously 
diminishes,  any  effective  concentration.  Without  such 
concentration  it  must  be  more  difficult  to  acquire  a 
mastery  of  either  forms  or  syntax.  We  hear  much 
Importance  of  to-day  of  correlation  in  educational  work, 
Concentration,  j^^^  ^g  need  to  exercise  the  greatest  dis- 
crimination in  the  combinations  we  undertake  to  make ; 
else  under  the  name  of  correlation  we  are  hkely  to  find 
ourselves  encouraging  a  serious  dissipation  of  energy. 
Nor  need  we,  I  beheve,  cherish  any  fears  of  overtraining 
the  memory  by  directing  the  pupil's  efforts  from  the 
outset  exclusively  (or  practically  so  ^ )  to  a  systematic 
study  of  the  forms  until  these  are  mastered.  So  far 
from  there  being  any  danger  of  overtraining  the  memory 
by  this  plan,  I  am  convinced,  by  my  experience  with 
some  twelve  hundred  freshmen  whose  work  has  all 
passed  directly  under  my  observation  during  the  last 
ten  years,  that  there  is  the  greatest  danger  of  training 
it  too  little.  The  age  at  which  pupils  ordinarily  begin 
the  study  of  Latin  is  one  at  which  the  memory  is  usu- 
ally active  and  responsive.  Later  the  keenness  of  its 
edge  is  dulled,  and  it  seems  unfortunate  not  to  encour- 
age its  cultivation  by  putting  upon  it  the  legitimate 
burdens  which  at  this  period  it  is  fitted  to  bear  with 
ease.  Nor  is  it  a  common  experience  that  pupils  quali- 
fied to  pursue  Latin  with  profit  find  this  work  either 
specially  laborious  or  distasteful  when  pursued  in  the 
manner    I  am  recommending.     On  the  other  hand,  I 


1  There  can  be  no  objection  to  giving  the  pupil  at  the  outset  the 
paradigm  of  the  present  indicative  active  of  a  regular  verb  of  the  ist 
conjugation,  the  present  indicative  of  sum,  along  with  a  few  fundamental 
syntactical  principles  (subject,  object,  predicate  noun,  appositive).  This 
makes  it  possible  to  deal  with  complete  sentences  from  the  earliest 
lessons. 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  $7 

cannot  reject  the  conviction  that  the  labour  is  increased 
and  the  acquisition  of  the  forms  is  made  positively  dis- 
tasteful by  assuming,  even  unconsciously,  the  attitude 
that  a  vigorous  attack  upon  the  forms  and  a  most  thor- 
ough memorizing  of  them  is  not  desirable.  As  has 
been  often  observed,  the  pupil  in  the  early  weeks  of 
his  study  of  Latin  is  dominated  by  a  veritable  thirst 
for  extensive  acquisition,  and  it  seems  unfortunate  not 
to  gratify  this  spirit  and  utilize  it,  instead  of  wearying 
the  pupil  by  unnatural  restraint. 

The  exclusive  exercise  of  the  memory  is  certainly  a 
pernicious  practice,  but  we  cannot  afford  to  neglect  the 
service  of  this  intellectual  process  at  any  stage  of  educa- 
tion or  in  the  pursuit  of  any  subject.  Least  of  all  can 
we  afford  to  neglect  it  in  the  study  of  a  highly  inflected 
language,  the  knowledge  of  whose  paradigms  is  so 
absolutely  indispensable  to  all  future  work.  These 
paradigms  must  be  memorized  till  they  are  as  familiar 
to  the  pupil  as  the  alphabet  or  the  multiplication  table. 
Only  so  can  he  be  said  to  know  them.  The  important 
question  is  whether  it  is  best  to  pursue  a  halting  timid 
policy  or  one  of  vigorous,  sustained  attack,  recognising 
that  nothing  but  the  severe  exercise  of  the  memory  will 
suffice  for  the  purpose.  Yet  it  is  only  in  the  very  ear- 
liest stages  of  Latin  study  that  any  such  extensive  utili- 
zation of  the  memory  can  be  necessary.  The  pupil 
comes  soon  enough  to  problems  which  demand  the 
exercise  of  the  reflective,  the  discriminating,  and  the 
imaginative  faculties,  and  he  will  be  all  the  better 
equipped  to  cope  with  these  problems  if  he  has  first 
provided  himself  with  a  solid  foundation  in  the  forms. 
In  fact,  without  such  foundation  he  will  be  permanently 
at  a  fatal  disadvantage. 

The  second  defect  of  the  beginner's  book  of  the  pre- 
vailing type  is  that  it  separates  in  the  initial  stages  of  the 


58  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

work  things  which  must  later  be  associated.  Thus  the 
pupil,  let  us  say,  learns  the  present,  imperfect,  and 
Necessitates  ^^^"^^  indicative  of  amo  in  one  lesson;  in 
Later  Re-  another  somewhat  later  he  learns  the  perfect 
a  justmen  .  {jj^^j^ative  active,  and  long  subsequently  he 
acquires  piecemeal  the  remainder  of  the  conjugation  of 
amo.  So  with  the  other  conjugations,  with  the  pronouns, 
with  the  five  declensions,  particularly  the  third,  which  is 
often  dismembered  and  whose  parts  are  treated  at  wide 
intervals ;  so,  too,  with  the  various  constructions  of  the 
accusative,  dative,  genitive,  ablative,  etc.  Sooner  or 
later  the  pupil  comes  to  the  Grammar,  and  here  he 
finds  the  facts  with  which  he  has  previously  become 
familiar  grouped  in  quite  another  way.  In  the  review 
of  what  he  has  already  learned,  and  in  forming  a  basis 
around  which  to  group  systematically  the  new  facts  of 
forms  and  syntax  he  may  acquire,  the  pupil  is  forced 
to  make  an  entirely  new  distribution  of  his  stock  of 
knowledge.  All  the  subtle  threads  of  association  which 
have  hitherto  been  woven  into  the  existing  fabric  of  his 
knowledge  have  to  be  rudely  broken,  and  a  new  warp 
and  a  new  woof  have  to  be  created.  I  fear  that  the 
amount  of  effort  requisite  for  the  consummation  of  this 
redistribution  and  rearrangement  is  not  fully  appreci- 
ated. To  my  mind  the  requisite  effort  cannot  fail  to 
be  enormous.  ^  I  fear,  in  fact,  that  it  is  so  great  that 
the  redistribution  and  rearrangement  frequently  fail  of 
consummation  by  the  pupil,  and  to  this  fact  I  believe 
we  must  attribute  in  large  measure  ^  the  deplorable 
ignorance   of  Latin  grammar  which   characterizes   the 


1  On  this  point,  cf.  Dettweiler  (in  Baumeister,  Handbuch  der  Erzie- 
hungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  fUr  die  lioheren  Schulen,  Vol.  III.  Part  iii., 
Lateinisch,  p.  36),  who  insists  that  the  beginner's  book  and  the  Gram- 
mar should  agree  in  arrangement  and  in  form  of  statement. 

2  Another  cause  is  mentioned  later  in  chapter  iv.  p.  144. 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  59 

pupils  of  our  secondary  schools  to-day.  Even  where 
the  change  of  association  and  the  necessary  regrouping 
are  effected,  it  can  be  only  at  great  expense  of  time  and 
energy.  A  true  economy  of  acquisition  should  always 
consider  the  ultimate  form  and  arrangement  in  which 
the  student  is  to  marshal  and  group  the  facts  of  his 
knowledge.  Unless  we  are  to  abandon  the  effective 
study  of  the  Latin  Grammar,  it  seems  to  me  indispen- 
sable to  make  the  beginner's  book  conform  in  its  arrange- 
ment and  material  to  the  order  of  the  Grammar,  so  far 
as  the  two  books  cover  identical  ground.  In  this  way 
the  beginning  book  will  be  a  distinct  help  to  the  later 
study  of  the  Grammar;  in  the  other  case,  the  difficulty 
of  the  new  adjustment  is  likely  to  prove  a  serious  im- 
pediment to  an  effective  mastery  of  the  Grammar.  The 
old  way  of  beginning  Latin  with  Grammar  and  Reader 
would,  I  believe,  be  sounder  and  easier  than  this. 

The  third  fundamental  defect  in  these  books  to  which 
I  wished  to  call  attention  touches  the  introduction  of 
exercises   in   translating   English  into  Latin 
before  the  forms   are    mastered.     So  far  as    S^iS" 
any  increased  mastery  of  the  forms  is  con-    introduced 
cerned,  it  seems  a  serious  mistake  to  expect    *^  ^^^^' 
to  secure  it  by  practice  in  translating  from  English  into 
Latin.     Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  essential 
feature  of  the  lesson  for  a  given  day  is  the  inflection  of  a 
noun  of  the  first  declension,  or  the  indicative      Economy 
mood  of  the  active  voice  of  amo.     Is  it  likely      o^  Time, 
to  be  an  effective  employment  of  the  student's  time  and 
energy,  for  him  to  translate,  say,  a  dozen  or  fifteen  sen- 
tences from  English  into  Latin,  calling  for  the  use  of 
different  forms  o{ porta  and  amo?    The  pupil  in  this  way 
gets  but  a  limited  amount  of  drill  on  the  forms.     Fifteen 
sentences  of  the  sort  mentioned  constitute  a  fairly  long 
exercise.     My  own  experiments  indicate  that  two  and 


6o  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

one-half  minutes  is  a  very  moderate  average  time  allow- 
ance for  each  sentence.  This  makes  thirty-seven  minutes 
for  such  an  exercise,  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupil's 
Defective  time.  Moreover,  the  exercise  is  almost  certain 
Results.  to  be  lacking  in  tonic  effect.    The  pupil's  nat- 

ural tendency  in  writing  the  Latin  for  '  of  the  farmer,' 
'of  the  girls,'  'to  the  inhabitants,'  etc.,  is  to  turn  to 
his  printed  paradigm  and  secure  the  desired  form  by 
imitating ;  so  in  the  verb,  *  he  will  praise,'  '  we  have 
praised,'  *  you  summoned,'  '  they  are  calling,'  etc.,  are 
not  turned  into  Latin  by  an  active  effort  of  deriving  the 
required  form  from  the  pupil's  present  knowledge  of 
the  paradigm,  but  almost  inevitably  the  pupil  follows  the 
line  of  least  resistance  and  consults  the  printed  paradigm. 
This  tendency  on  the  pupil's  part  is  so  strong,  I  believe, 
as  to  be  practically  irresistible,  and,  where  yielded  to, 
must  exert  an  influence  which,  so  far  from  being  tonic 
and  strengthening,  is  positively  weakening  to  the  pupil. 
To  me  it  seems  possible  to  ensure  the  requisite  inde- 
pendent exercise  upon  the  forms  only  by  oral  methods 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher. 

Let  me  illustrate  what  I  have  in  mind.  Let  us  sup- 
pose the  lesson  is  on  the  first  declension.  Let  the 
A  Practical  teacher  put  to  the  entire  class  such  questions 
Suggestion.  as  the  following,  asking  for  a  show  of  hands 
as  each  pupil  is  prepared  to  answer:  ''What  is  the 
Latin  for  '  of  girls ;  '  '  to  the  farmers ;  '  '  farmers '  as  sub- 
ject ;  as  object ;  *  of  the  island  '  ?  "  and  so  on,  i.  e.  pursu- 
ing a  series  of  questions  in  which  the  English  is  given 
and  the  corresponding  Latin  form  is  demanded.  Then 
let  the  reverse  process  be  instituted,  and  translation  into 
English  be  demanded  where  the  Latin  form  is  given. 
The  teacher  asks:  "What  is  the  English  for  puellae, 
for  insulis,  incolariim,  ificolain,  agricolaCy  agricolas  ?  "  etc. 
Then  a  fresh  turn  may  be  taken  and  the  form  be  given. 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  6l 

while  the  pupils  are  asked  to  give  the  number  and  case 
in  which  the  form  is  found ;  and,  lastly,  the  teacher  may 
give  the  number  and  case,  asking  for  the  form  which 
corresponds,  e.  g.,  "  What  is  the  genitive  plural  of  in- 
sula;  the  dative  singular  of  agricola;  the  dative  plural; 
the  accusative  plural  of  incolaf  ",  etc.  Similarly  with  the 
verb ;  the  teacher  can  give  the  meaning  and  ask  for  the 
corresponding  form,  or  he  may  give  the  form  and  ask 
for  the  meaning;  or  he  may  state  the  mood,  tense, 
person,  and  number  in  which  a  given  form  is  found  and 
ask  the  pupils  to  give  the  form ;  or,  lastly,  he  may  give 
the  form  and  ask  the  pupils  to  locate  its  mood,  tense, 
number,  and  person.  By  such  an  exercise  the  pupils 
are  thrown  entirely  upon  their  own  resources.  They 
are  forced  to  recall  and  to  reconstruct;  they  cannot 
refer  to  a  book ;  the  process  is  stimulating  and  strength- 
ening. They  are  indelibly  imprinting  upon  their  minds 
vivid  pictures  of  the  paradigms,  filling  in  the  relatively 
uncertain  and  shadowy  outlines  with  definite  and  effec- 
tive strokes.  Another  advantage  of  such  an  exercise 
is  the  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done  in  a  relatively 
short  time.  The  pupil  who  in  thirty-seven  minutes  has 
written  fifteen  exercises  has  at  best  received  only  fifteen 
impressions  illustrating  the  paradigm  involved  in  the 
lesson  for  the  day.  There  is  the  greatest  danger,  too, 
that  these  impressions  have  been  feeble,  —  inevitably  so 
if,  instead  of  recalling  the  required  form  by  a  direct 
effort,  the  pupil  has  consulted  the  printed  paradigm  for 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  by  such  an  exercise  as  I 
describe  it  is  easily  possible  in  two  minutes  to  secure 
these  fifteen  impressions,  and  to  be  sure  that  they  have 
been  secured  by  the  only  way  possessing  any  educative 
value,  —  by  a  direct  effort  of  the  memory  and  reason. 
In  ten  minutes,  therefore,  five  times  as  much  can  be 
done   toward   impressing   upon   the   pupil's    mind   the 


62  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

paradigm  of  porta  or  of  a^no  as  in  four  times  the  same 
amount  of  time  devoted  to  writing  sentences  involving 
the  application  of  these  forms,  and  the  teacher  can  be 
certain  too  that  the  work  has  been  honest.  It  is  not 
difficult  either  to  enlist  the  activity  of  an  entire  class  in 
such  an  exercise.  While  only  one  pupil  can  answer 
any  given  question,  yet  I  have  never  failed  to  feel 
convinced,  where  I  have  followed  this  plan,  that  the 
entire  class  were  doing  the  work.  Such  work,  further- 
more, is  intensive,  whereas  the  writing  of  sentences  — 
even  of  simple  sentences  —  inevitably  distracts  the 
pupil's  mind  from  the  forms,  and  dissipates  his  energies 
upon  a  variety  of  things.  One  of  these  is  the  vocabu- 
lary. As  the  pupil  progresses  from  lesson  to  lesson 
he  is  sure  to  forget  some,  at  least,  of  the  earlier  Latin 
words,  and  when  he  needs  them  there  is  only  one  re- 
course, —  to  hunt  them  up  in  the  Vocabulary  at  the  end 
of  the  book.  Another  difficulty  is  the  syntax,  —  slight, 
perhaps,  but  actual ;  yet  another  is  the  matter  of  word- 
order.  All  of  these  elements  together  conspire  to  pre- 
vent that  indispensable  concentration  upon  the  forms 
without  which  they  cannot  be  mastered.  Instead  of 
doing  one  thing,  the  pupil  is  doing  several  contempora- 
neously, and  all  probably  indifferently.  "  Otie  thing  at 
a  time,  and  that  do7te  well,'  was  a  fine  old  motto  of  our 
fathers,  which  seems  too  much  neglected  in  recent  edu- 
cation. Still  the  writing  of  Latin  undoubtedly  has  its 
place.  When  the  pupil  comes  to  the  systematic  study 
of  syntax,  such  exercises  are  indispensable ;  but  I  hold 
it  to  be  a  self-evident  proposition  that  for  the  purposes 
of  effective  drill  in  syntax  the  forms  must  be  already 
thoroughly  mastered,  so  that  the  pupil's  entire  energy 
may  be  devoted  to  the  one  central  object  of  attention. 
Only  then  can  we  secure  that  definiteness  of  impression 
which  is  the  foundation  of  real  knowledge.     The  piano- 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  63 

forte  pupil  does  not  practise  exercises  the  successive 
bars  of  which  consist  of  arpeggios,  trills,  double  thirds, 
octaves,  and  scales.  These  various  elements  of  musical 
capacity  are  taken  individually,  and  each  is  made  the 
subject  of  intensive  work.  I  cannot  but  feel  that  in  all 
study  and  all  teaching  the  same  principle  must  apply 
wherever  effective  progress  is  to  be  made  without  de- 
plorable waste  of  time  and  energy  both  on  the  pupil's 
and  the  teacher's  part. 

As  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  beginner's  book,  1 
believe  it  should  be  small.  The  principle  above  advo- 
cated of  doing  one  thing  at  a  time  and  doing  ^^ 
that  thing  well,  as  opposed  to  undertaking  to  lary  should 
do  several  things  at  a  time  and  inviting  dis- 
aster, holds  here  also.  If  the  beginner  can  learn  his  in- 
flections and  a  few  elements  of  syntax,  even  though  his 
vocabulary  be  limited,  he  is  equipped  to  begin  some 
simple  reading.  A  vocabulary  can  be  acquired  only 
slowly  at  best,  and  its  acquisition  will  be  retarded  so 
long  as  the  pupil  still  has  an  imperfect  or  incomplete 
knowledge  of  his  paradigms,  and  is  still  under  the  neces- 
sity of  devoting  a  large  part  of  his  energy  to  this  feature 
of  his  Latin  study.  Even  after  the  forms  are  mastered, 
it  would  still  seem  wiser,  pending  the  acquisition  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  Latin  syntax,  to  defer  any 
special  endeavour  to  extend  the  range  of  the  pupil's  vocab- 
ulary. When  these  indispensable  preliminaries  have 
been  met  the  pupil  may  well  enough  make  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  vocabulary  an  important  end  of  study,  and  may 
then,  I  believe,  expect  to  make  fairly  rapid  progress  in 
his  quest.  But  before  that,  I  am  convinced  not  only 
that  his  struggle  will  be  futile,  but  that  his  general  prog- 
ress in  other  directions  will  be  impeded  by  the  multi- 
phcity  of  his  concerns,  and  the  consequent  distraction 
of  effort  and  energy.     Those  educators,  therefore,  who 


64  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

advocate  a  vocabulary  of  2,000  or  2,200  words  in  the  be- 
ginner's book  seem  to  me  to  be  guided  by  unsound  con- 
victions. It  is  perfectly  true,  as  these  persons  urge,  that 
the  lack  of  vocabulary  is  the  one  great  impediment  to 
more  extensive  and  more  rapid  reading  of  Latin ;  but  the 
great  question  after  all  is  how  best  to  secure  an  exten- 
sive and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  words  one  is  likely 
to  meet  in  reading.  Are  we  likely  to  succeed  by  dint  of 
a  heroic  effort  at  the  outset  when  other  and  more  serious 
difficulties  are  encountering  us  at  every  turn?  Is  it  not 
better  to  restrict  ourselves  to  other  things  in  the  begin- 
ning work,  and  leave  the  vocabulary  for  the  later  stages 
of  the  study?  Seven  hundred  words  have  been  shown 
by  experience  to  be  amply  sufficient  to  lend  variety  and 
interest  to  the  work,  and,  by  the  abundant  repetition  of 
the  same  words,  to  ensure  that  this  small  vocabulary 
will  be  thoroughly  mastered.  But  even  this  mastery 
should  hardly  be  made  a  conspicuous  object.  Probably 
most  pupils  will  inevitably  become  familiar  with  all  or 
nearly  all  the  words  of  a  vocabulary  of  that  size  by  the 
mere  frequency  with  which  the  words  recur.  Any 
effective  vocabulary  will  certainly  always  be  gained  in 
that  way,  i.  e,  by  reading  and  frequently  meeting  the 
same  words  used  again  and  again  in  the  same  senses. 
Nothing  but  wide  reading  can  bring  about  this  result, 
and  to  read  widely  while  pursuing  the  beginning  work  is 
a  contradiction  in  terms. 

To  sum  up,  then,  on  this  subject  of  the  beginner's 
book,  I  feel  convinced  that  most  existing  beginner's 
books  make  a  profound  psychological  mis- 
take in  combining  the  contemporaneous 
study  of  forms  and  syntax  from  the  outset;  in  disso- 
ciating not  merely  the  different  declensions  and  con- 
jugations, but  even  the  different  parts  of  the  same 
declension  and  the  same  conjugation;    in  dissociating 


THE  BEGINNER'S  BOOK  65 

related  syntactical  constructions ;  furthermore  (as  a 
result  of  these  dissociations),  in  teaching  the  elements 
of  the  language  to  the  pupil  in  an  order  that  must  be 
unlearned  and  mentally  rearranged  so  soon  as  a  syste- 
matic study  of  the  Latin  Grammar  is  begun ;  lastly,  in 
laying  stress  upon  the  writing  of  Latin  before  the  forms 
are  mastered,  —  an  exercise  which  can  primarily  be  of 
value  only  in  inculcating  a  better  knowledge  of  syntax, 
and  is  of  the  very  slightest  aid,  if  not  a  positive  detri- 
ment, in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  forms  themselves. 
When  to  all  these  defects  is  added,  as  in  some  books  of 
the  class  referred  to,  a  very  large  vocabulary,  we  have 
the  climax  of  unwisdom  applied  to  the  teaching  of 
elementary  Latin.  Reason  seems  to  me  to  show  us  that 
in  approaching  a  difficult  subject  the  logical  way  is  not 
to  attempt  to  master  all  its  difficulties  at  once,  not  to 
undertake  from  the  outset  to  cope  with  every  species  of 
obstacle,  howsoever  heterogeneous  these  may  be;  but 
rather  to  choose  for  the  object  of  first  attack  that  side  of 
the  subject  whose  knowledge  is  indispensable  to  further 
advance,  to  master  this,  and  then  proceed  to  the  next 
thing,  building  in  orderly  systematic  fashion,  doing  one 
thing  at  a  time  and  doing  that  honestly,  conserving 
energy,  clinging  definitely  to  a  purpose,  and  making 
that  purpose  obvious  to  the  pupil  instead  of  involving 
him  in  a  blind  maze,  out  of  which  nothing  but  a  supreme 
act  of  faith  can  afford  any  hope  of  ever  emerging.  Per- 
sonally I  believe  the  pupil  should  first  address  himself 
to  the  forms,  and  devote  himself  to  nothing  else  until 
they  are  completely  mastered.  I  believe  too  that  these 
should  be  studied  practically  in  the  order  given  in  the 
Grammar,^  illustrated  of  course  by  copious  sentences  for 


1  Bonus  and  other  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  may 
well  enough  follow  nouns  of  the  first  and  second  declensions.  I  can 
think  of  no  other  justifiable  deviation. 

S 


66  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

translation.  Until  the  forms  are  mastered,  syntax,  I  am 
convinced,  should  be  kept  in  the  background,  beyond 
the  introduction  of  the  commonest  syntactical  principles, 
such  as  the  case  for  subject,  object,  predicate  noun, 
appositive,  the  agreement  of  the  adjective  with  its  sub- 
stantive, and  of  the  relative  with  its  antecedent.  The 
writing  of  Latin,  too,  should  be  deferred  at  least  till 
syntax  is  reached,  and  if  it  is  deferred  till  after  the  first 
rough  outline  of  elementary  syntax  is  acquired,  it  will 
involve  no  harm.  The  vocabulary  should  be  brief;  seven 
or  eight  hundred  words,  exclusive  of  proper  names,  are 
ample  for  the  beginning  work.  These,  too,  should  be 
common  words,  and  as  concrete  as  possible;  words, 
too,  employed  in  their  original  senses,  not  In  derived 
ones. 

II.   Pronunciation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Bennett,  Chas.  E.  Appendix  to  Bennett's  Latin  Grammar,  pp.  4-68. 
Boston.     Allyn  &  Bacon.     1895. 

Lindsay,  "W.  M.  The  Latin  Language,  Chapter  ii.  Oxford.  Claren- 
don Press.     1894. 

Lindsay,  W.  M.  Historical  Latin  Grammar,  pp.  8-21.  Oxford. 
Clarendon  Press.     1895. 

Seelmann,  Emil.     Die  Aussprache  des  Latin.     Heilbronn.     1885. 

Ellis,  Robinson.  The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin.  Lon- 
don.    1874.     A  discussion  of  special  problems. 

Roby,  H.  J.  Latin  Grammar.  Vol.  I.,  4th  ed.  pp.  xxx-xc.  London. 
Macmillan  &  Co.     1881. 

It  Is  now  something  like  twenty  years  since  the  so- 
called  Roman  or  quantitative  pronunciation  of  Latin  was 

„^  „  first   generally  introduced    into   the    schools 

The  Roman  ,  t^  • 

Pronuncia-      and  colleges  of  this  country.     Prior  to  that, 

*^°°*  most  schools  and  colleges  had  used  the  Eng- 

lish pronunciation ;  some  few  employed  a  pronunciation 
called  the  *  continental.'     This   last,  however,   was  not 


PRONUNCIATION  6/ 

one  pronunciation,  but  several;  in  the  sounds  of  the 
vowels  it  adhered  to  their  prevailing  pronunciation  in 
the  languages  of  continental  Europe,  but  the  sounds  of 
certain  consonants,  namely,  c,g,  t,j\  s,  were  rendered  with 
much  variety.  Both  the  English  and  continental  pro- 
nunciations still  survive  in  this  country,  though  prob- 
ably the  two  together  are  not  represented  by  five  per 
cent  of  the  Latin  pupils  of  the  secondary  schools ;  in 
the  colleges  the  percentage  must  be  lower  still. 

By  the  Roman  pronunciation  is,  of  course,  meant 
the  pronunciation  employed  by  the  ancient  Romans 
themselves.  This  pronunciation  naturally  varied  much 
at  different  periods ;  ^  hence  it  has  been  necessary  to 
take  the  pronunciation  of  some  well-defined  epoch  as 
a  standard.  The  epoch  conventionally  adopted  for  this 
purpose  is  the  golden  age  of  Rome's  literary  greatness, 
—  roughly  the  period  from  50  B.C.  to  50  A.  D.  Inas- 
much as  many  intelligent  and  otherwise  well-  Eyj^gjice  for 
informed  persons,  including  teachers  of  Latin,  the  Roman 
often  cherish  and  express  a  skepticism  as  to 
the  grounds  on  which  scholars  have  presumed  to  recon- 
struct the  pronunciation  of  a  dead  language  like  Latin, 
it  may  be  well  here  briefly  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
evidence  which  supports  this  Roman  pronunciation  of 
Latin.     The  evidence  may  be  brought  under  five  heads. 

a.    The  statements  of  Roman  writers.     To  a  person 
unaware  of  the  writings  of  the  old  Latin  grammarians 
from  the  first  to  the  eighth  centuries  of  our    jj^j^^ 
era,  the  body  of  their  works  will  be  surprising.    Grammari- 
These  works   have   been  carefully   collected    ^** 
by  Keil,  a  German  scholar,  under  the  title  Grammatici 


1  Thus  V,  to  take  but  a  single  letter  for  the  purposes  of  illustration, 
was  pronounced  as  English  w  down  to  about  100  a.  d.  ;  later  it  became 
a  bilabial  spirant  (a  sound  not  occurring  in  English);  and  finally  (5th 
century  a.  d.)  it  passed  into  the  labio  dental  spirant,  English  v. 


68  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

Lafim  (heipz'ig,  1855-1880),  and  fill  eight  large  quarto 
volumes.  These  writers  cover  the  entire  field  of  gram- 
mar, and  most  of  them  devote  more  or  less  space  to 
a  systematic  consideration  of  the  sounds  of  the  letters. 
As  representative  writers  on  this  subject,  may  be  cited 
Terentianus  Maurus  (flourished  185  A.  D.) ;  Marius 
Victorinus  (fl.  350  A.  D.) ;  Martianus  Capella  (fourth 
or  fifth  century  A.  D. ;  not  in  Keil's  collection)  ;  Priscian 
(fl.  500  A.  D.).  Even  the  classical  writers  have  often 
incidentally  contributed  valuable  bits  of  information; 
e.  g,  Varro,  Cicero,  Quintilian. 

b.  Inscriptions  furnish  a  second  important  source  of 
information.     The  total   body  of  these  is  very  great. 

The  Corpus  Inscriptionnm  Latinarum,  in  pro- 
Inscriptions.  /.,,..  .  ox-  .  , 

cess  of  pubhcation  smce  1863,  consists  al- 
ready of  fifteen  large  folio  volumes,  some  of  them  in 
several  parts,  and  is  not  yet  completed.  These  inscrip- 
tions disclose  many  peculiarities  of  orthography  which 
are  exceedingly  instructive  for  the  pronunciation  of 
Latin.  Thus  such  spellings  as  urps  and  pleps  by  the 
side  of  urbs  and  plebs  clearly  indicate  the  assimilation 
oi  b  \.o  p  before  s.  Similarly  termae,  aetereas,  etc.,  show 
clearly  that  at  the  time  these  inscriptions  were  cut  th 
was  still  practically  a  /-sound,  and  forbid  us  to  attach 
to  it  the  value  of  English  th  as  heard  in  either  this  or 
thin.  Even  the  blunders  of  the  masons  who  cut  the 
inscriptions  are  not  infrequently  exceedingly  instructive. 

c.  Greek  transliterations  of  Latin  words  constitute  a 
third  source  of  knowledge.  Not  only  Greek  writers 
Greek  Trans-  (especially  the  Greek  historians  of  Roman 
uterations.  afl"airs),  but  also  Greek  inscriptions,  aflbrd 
us  abundant  evidence  of  this  kind.  Thus  the  Greek 
KiKcpcov  (Cicero)  furnishes  support  for  the  y^-sound  of 
Latin  c;  while  Atovia  (^Livia)  and  OvakevrCa  {Valentia) 
bear   similarly   upon   the    zf-sound   of   Latin   v.     The 


PRONUNCIATION  69 

Inscriptions  are  naturally  much  more  trustworthy  guides 
in  this  matter  than  our  texts  of  the  Greek  authors,  for 
we  can  never  be  sure  that  the  MSS.  have  not  undergone 
alterations  in  the  process  of  transmission  to  modern 
times. 

d.  The  Romance  languages  also  (French,  Spanish, 
Italian,  etc.),  within  limits,  may   be  utihzed    Romance 

in  determining  the  sounds  of  Latin.  Languages. 

e.  The  sound-changes  of  Latin  itself,  as  analyzed  by 
etymological  investigation.  Modern  scholars,  particu- 
larly in  the  last  forty  years,  have  done  much 

to  promote  the  scientific  study  of  Latin  sounds 

and  forms;  their  researches  have  thrown  no  little  light 

upon  the  sounds  of  Latin. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  sources  of  knowledge,-^  any 
one  who  will  patiently  review  the  evidence  may  easily 
assure  himself  that  the  Roman  pronunciation  rests  upon 
a  solid  historical  foundation,  and  is  not  a  flimsy  product 
of  the  imagination.  As  to  certain  points,  the  evidence 
is,  of  course,  conflicting,  and  as  a  result  the  opinions  of 
scholars  diverge.  Doubtless,  too,  there  existed  certain 
refinements  of  pronunciation  which  will  always  remain 
unknown  to  us.  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  we  can 
to-day  restore  in  its  essential  features  the  pronunciation 
of  Latin  substantially  as  the  Romans  spoke  it. 

Admission  has  just  been  made  above  of  our  inability 
to  establish  with  certainty  all  the  various  refinements 
of  pronunciation  which  must  have  existed  in  Latin. 
An  exception  must  be  made,  however,  in  Hidden 
regard  to  one  point,  —  "  hidden  quantity."  A  Q^iantity. 
hidden  quantity  is  the  quantity  of  a  vowel  before  two 
consonants.  Such  a  quantity  is  called  hidden  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  quantity  of  a  vowel  before  a  single 


1  The  detailed  evidence  will  be  found  in  the  books  above  cited. 


70  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

consonant,  where  the  employment  of  the  word  in  verse 
at  once  indicates  whether  the  vowel  is  long  or  short.^ 

The  determination  of  these  hidden  quantities  is  obvi- 
ously of  great  importance  if  we  would  secure  an  accu- 
rate pronunciation  of  Latin.  In  a  modern  language  the 
pronunciation  of  a  long  vowel  for  a  short,  or  vice  versa, 
will  often  effectually  disguise  a  word.^  At  first  sight 
the  determination  of  these  multitudinous  hidden  quanti- 
ties seems  a  well-nigh  insuperable  difficulty.  Scholarly 
research  has,  however,  succeeded  in  definitely  settling 
most  of  them.^     The  evidence  is  as  follows: 

a.  Express  testimony  of  the  attcient  Roman  writers. 
Thus,  for  example,  Cicero  {Orator,  48.  159)  lays  down 
the  general  principle  that  all  vowels  are  long  before  nf 
and  ns.  Nearly  every  Roman  grammarian  furnishes 
some  little  direct  testimony  of  this  kind. 

b.  The  versification  of  the  early  Roman  dramatists, 
particularly  Plautus  and   Terence.     These  writers   fre- 


1  Thus  in  the  hexameter  line  beginning  conspexere  silent,  the  metre 
clearly  shows  that  the  /  of  silent  is  short ;  for  if  the  vowel  were  here 
long,  the  syllable  would  be  long.  But  the  e  of  silent  might  be  either 
long  or  short.  All  that  the  metre  shows  is  that  the  syllable  is  long;  it 
tells  us  nothing  about  the  vowel,  and  we  cannot  (at  least  not  by  mere 
inspection  of  the  verse)  determine  whether  we  should  pronounce  e  or  e. 
Hence  we  call  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in  such  cases  hidden.  Pupil 
and  teacher  alike  should  always  guard  carefully  against  the  prevalent 
confusion  of  quantity  of  vowel  with  quantity  of  syllable.  Before  a  single 
consonant  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  and  syllable  are,  of  course,  always 
identical,  /.  e.  if  the  vowel  is  long,  the  syllable  is  also  long,  but  before  two 
consonants,  while  the  syllable  is  long,  the  voivel  itself  may  be  either  long 
or  short,  and  must  be  pronounced  long  or  short  according  to  its  actual 
quantity. 

2  Were  one  to  speak  of  a  wtck  as  a  7veke,  or  a  pool  as  a  pUll,  the 
metathesis  would  be  the  same  as  in  Latin  when  one  says  victor  for 
vtctor  ;  or  ustus  for  iisltis.  I  remember  that  in  German  my  pronunciation 
of  Kloster  as  Kldster ;  Mond  as  M8nd ;  and  WUste  as  WUste,  all  com- 
pletely nonplussed  my  listeners. 

8  A  detailed  discussion  of  the  principles  for  hidden  quantity,  along 
with  a  full  list  of  words  whose  hidden  vowels  are  long,  may  be  found  in 
Bennett,  Appendix  to  Latin  Grammar,  pp.  34-68. 


PRO  NUN  CI  A  TION  7 1 

quently  employ  as  short  many  syllables  which  in  classi- 
cal poetry  would  invariably  be  long  by  position.  In 
many  of  these  cases  it  is  manifest  that  the  short  syllable 
quantity  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  vowel  was  short 
and  that  the  two  following  consonants  somehow  failed  to 
*  make  position.' 

c.  Inscriptions.  Various  modes  of  spelling  and  various 
diacritical  marks  were  in  vogue  to  indicate  long  vowels. 
Thus  from  130-70  B.  c.  we  find  the  vowels  a,  e,  ?/  written 
double,  when  it  was  desired  to  indicate  their  long  quan- 
tity, e.  g.  paastores,  pequlatuu,  etc.  Long  i  was  in  early 
times  often  written  ei,  e.g.  veixit.  Beginning  with  the 
middle  of  the  first  century  B.  c.  we  find  the  apex  (or 
accent  mark)  set  over  the  vowels  a,  e^  0,  u,  while  long  i 
was  now  designated  by  an  I  rising  above  the  other 
letters  and  called  i  longa.  Later,  i  also  took  the  apex. 
Examples  are :  trdxi,  olla,  lectus,  juncta,  qvInqve, 
prisciis. 

d.  Greek  transliterations  of  Latin  words.  This  method 
is  most  fruitfully  applied  in  case  of  the  vowels  e  and  0. 
The  employment  of  Greek  e  or  77,  0  or  a),  makes  the 
quantity  of  the  Latin  vowel  certain,  wherever  faith  may 
be  reposed  in  the  accuracy  of  the  transcription.  Thus 
we  write  Esquiliae  in  view  of 'Hc/cuXtz^o?,  Strabo,  v.  234; 
Vergilius  after  OvepyiXio^;;  Vesontio  after  OveaovTicov, 
Dio  Cassius,  Ixviii.  24.  The  quantity  of  i  also  may  often 
be  determined  by  Greek  transliterations.  Thus  ei  regu- 
larly points  to  Latin  J,  e.  g.  BeL-^jrdvto^  =  Vipsdnius; 
Greek  i  points  to  Latin  t,  e.g.    l(TTpo<;  =  Ister. 

e.  T/ie  vocalism  of  the  Romance  languages,  particu- 
larly the  Spanish  and  Italian.  These  languages  treated 
e,  i,  0,  u  with  great  regularity  according  to  the  natural 
length  of  the  vowel  in  Latin.  Latin  e  and  0  were  close 
vowels ;  e  and  0  were  open.  The  Romance  languages 
have  preserved  these  original  vowel  qualities  with  great 


72  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

tenacity.  Hence  Italian  crescere  with  close  e  justifies  our 
writing  cresco  for  Latin ;  while  Italian  honesto  with  open 
e  points  to  Latin  hoiiestiis.  Similarly  Italian  noscere  with 
close  0  justifies  our  writing  nosed  for  Latin,  while  Italian 
dotto  with  open  o  points  to  Latin  doctus.  In  the  same 
way  Latin  i  and  il  remained  i  and  ii  in  Romance,  while 
t  and  u  became  respectively  close  e  and  close  o.  Thus 
from  Italian  dissi  we  infer  Latin  dixi ;  from  Italian  dussi, 
Latin  duxi ;  while  detto  with  close  e  points  to  Latin 
dictus,  and  -dotto  with  close  o  to  Latin  diictus.  This 
method  of  deteimining  the  hidden  quantity  of  Latin 
vowels  from  the  Romance  has  been  applied  most  fruit- 
fully in  recent  years. 

As  a  result  of  the  application  of  the  five  methods 
above  described,  there  remain  at  present  extremely 
few  undetermined  hidden  vowel  quantities  in  Latin 
words.  Some  slight  divergence  of  opinion  still  exists 
among  investigators  as  to  the  quantity  of  certain  vowels ; 
but  this  divergence  is  exceedingly  slight,  vastly  less, 
in  fact,  than  for  any  corresponding  number  of  Eng- 
lish words.  Professors  Greenough  and  Howard  in  the 
preface  to  their  Allen  a?td  Greenough' s  Shorter  Latin 
Grammar,  p.  iv,  speak  of  this  matter  of  hidden  quanti- 
ties as  a  subject  still  in  its  infancy.  Such  is  far  from 
being  the  case.  Of  the  five  methods  above  enumerated 
of  arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  hidden  quantities,  each  one 
has  already  been  utilized  to  practically  the  fullest  extent 
of  which  it  is  capable.  The  works  of  the  Roman  gram- 
marians and  other  Roman  writers  have  been  systemati- 
cally searched,  and  their  testimonies  recorded  and  sifted ; 
the  versification  of  the  Roman  dramatists  has  been  care- 
fully studied  with  specific  reference  to  this  very  point ; 
the  great  body  of  Latin  inscriptions  has  been  conscien- 
tiously examined,  and  all  instances  of  the  use  of  the 
apex  or  I  lofiga  have  been  gathered  and  classified  by 


PRONUNCIATION  73 

C\\ns,t\3in?,en  {De  apicibtis  et  I  longis.  Husum,  1889);  the 
form  assumed  by  Latin  words  in  Greek  transliterations 
has  been  carefully  studied  for  the  body  of  Greek  in- 
scriptions by  Eckinger  {Orthographie  lateinischer  Worter 
in  griechischen  Inschrifteji.  Munich.  Without  date; 
about  1893);  and,  lastly,  the  testimony  derivable  from 
the  Romance  languages  has  been  most  minutely  exam- 
ined in  a  series  of  publications :  Grober,  Vulgdrlatein- 
ische  Substrata  romanischer  Worter^  a  series  of  articles 
in  Wolfflin's  Archiv  fur  lateinische  Lexikographie y  vols, 
i.— vi. ;  Korting,  Lateinisch-Romanisches  Worterbuchy 
Paderborn,  1891  ;  d'Ovidio,  in  Grober' s  Grundiss  der 
rornanischen  Philologie,  Strassburg,  1888,  i.  p.  497  ff. 
The  authors  of  these  last  three  works  have  not  merely 
taken  into  consideration  the  leading  literary  Romance 
languages,  but  they  have  gleaned  from  the  most  obscure 
dialects  whatever  contribution  these  could  offer. 

All  in  all,  it  is  not  probable  that  we  shall  ever  know 
the  quantities  of  hidden  Latin  vowels  appreciably  better 
than  we  do  to-day,  for  it  is  unlikely  either  that  new 
sources  of  knowledge  on  this  subject  will  be  discovered, 
or  that  further  study  of  the  existing  sources  will  yield  re- 
sults which  will  materially  alter  our  present  conclusions. 

I  have  been  speaking  thus  far  of  the  Roman  pronun- 
ciation as  a  subject  of  historical  and  linguistic  interest. 
It  remains  to  say  a  word  as  to  its  adaptation    ^j^g  uo^ja^ 
to  the  needs  of  our  American  education ;  and    Pronunciation 
here  I  wish  at  the  outset  to  declare  frankly    Abandoned  — 
my  conviction  that   the  introduction  of  the   Reasons. 
Roman  pronunciation  was  a  fundamental  blunder,  and 
that   its    retention   is   likewise  a  serious   mistake.     My 
reasons  follow: 

a.  The  Roman  pronunciation  is  extremely  difficult. 
This  is  sometimes  denied,  but  only  by  superficial  ob- 


74  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

servers.     Such  persons  call  attention  to  the  fact  that, 

under  the  Roman  pronunciation,  c,  g,  ty  s  are 
Difficulty.  ,  .^  .     ^  •   ^'  t  u 

always  uniform  m  pronunciation,  whereas  by 

the  English  method  the  sounds  of  these  letters  vary  and 
depend  upon  rules.  This,  however,  is  a  very  slight  con- 
sideration ;  for  c,  g,  t,  s  under  the  English  pronunciation 
vary  in  accordance  with  the  normal  mode  of  pronounc- 
ing the  same  letters  in  English  words.  Thus  we  instinc- 
tively pronounce  genus  2i?>  jee-nuSj  propitiiis  as  propiskuSy 
after  familiar  English  analogy.  What  makes  the 
Roman  pronunciation  of  Latin  really  difficult  is  the 
quantity  of  the  vowels.  So  far  as  these  belong  to 
inflectional  endings,  e.  g.  -i,  -drumy  -oSy  -as,  -drum,  -ibuSy 
'dbamy  -ebaniy  -ero,  -eranty  etc.,  they  can  be  learned  as 
easily  by  one  pronunciation  as  the  other.  But  even 
when  the  pupil  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  these,  there 
remains  the  multitude  of  vowels  in  the  interior  of  words, 
—  in  root  syllables,  in  stems,  and  in  suffixes.  Here 
nothing  but  sheer  force  of  memory  can  enable  any  one  to 
become  master  of  the  vast  number  of  vowels  to  be  pro- 
nounced. Even  the  same  root  often  varies,  e.  g.  fldoy 
but  fides  ;  ftdelis,  but  fldus.  Some  few  general  prin- 
ciples can,  of  course,  be  given,  but  there  remain  literally 
thousands  of  vowels  that  must  be  learned  outright  and 
retained  by  memory  alone ;  e,  g.  stMiuniy  geroy  vttiumy 
modus y  sexdgintd^  seneXy  video y  Idtus  C  side  '),  but  IdtuSy 
('broad  ')yferuSy  etc.,  etc.,  etc.  To  these  must  be  added 
hidden  vowel  quantities  by  the  hundreds ;  e.  g,  frustrdy 
cessi,  scrip  Sly  tinxiy  missus  y  ustuSy  Us  si,  lux,  niiXy  diiXy 
neXy  lex,  usquCy  rostrumy  fibster,  sistOy  sistrumy  mdximus, 
luctuSyfliictus,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Even  the  consonants  create  difficulty,  particularly  the 
doubled  consonants ;  e.  g.  pp,  tt,  cc,  11,  mmy  sSy  etc.  In 
English  we  pronounce  these  singly.  Thus  we  say/^ry, 
though  we  write  ferry  ;  kitj/y  where  we  write  kitty.     But 


PRONUNCIA  TION  75 

in  Latin  we  know  that  these  doubled  consonants  were 
regularly  pronounced  double,  just  as  they  are  in  modern 
Italian.  A  distinct  effort  is  necessary  to  achieve  this 
pronunciation. 

Another  point  of  difficulty  is  the  proper  division  of 
words  into  syllables.  Recent  researches  have  shown 
that  our  traditional  rules  for  syllable  division,  though 
they  rest  upon  the  express  testimony  of  the  Latin 
grammarians,  were  purely  mechanical  directions,  and 
did  not  indicate  the  actual  pronunciation.^  The  actual 
division,  moreover,  must  have  been  quite  different  from 
that  which  prevails  in  English  under  corresponding  con- 
ditions. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  difficulty  of  the  Latin  accent.  It 
is  beyond  question  that  Latin  was  less  heavily  stressed 
than  are  the  accented  syllables  in  our  English  speech. 

All  these  difficulties  are  really  so  great  that  anything 
like  an  accurate  pronunciation  of  Latin  under  the 
Roman  system  is  practically  impossible  except  by  the 
sacrifice  of  an  amount  of  time  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  importance  of  the  end  to  be  attained.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  few  teachers  and  practically  no  pupils  ever  do 
acquire  a  pronunciation  of  any  exactness.  Out  of  some 
twelve  hundred  freshmen  whom  I  have  tested  on  this 
point  in  the  last  dozen  years  at  two  leading  American 
universities  I  have  never  found  one  who  could  mark  ten 
Hnes  of  Caesar's  Gallic  Wcir  with,  substantial  quantitative 
accuracy.  Nor  is  this  all.  For  eight  years  I  have  con- 
ducted summer  courses  for  teachers  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. This  work  has  been  attended  by  some  two 
hundred  teachers  and  college  professors,  nearly  all  of 
them  college  graduates,  and  many  of  them  persons  who 
had  had  graduate  work  at  our  best  universities.    Yet  few 

1  See  the  discussion  in  Bennett,  Appendix  to  Bennett's  Latin  Gram- 
mar, p.  30  ff. 


^6  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

of  these  have  ever  shown  any  thorough  grasp  of  the 
Roman  pronunciation,  and  most  of  them  have  exhibited 
deplorable  ignorance  of  the  first  principles  of  its  accurate 
application.  Even  college  professors  of  eminence  often 
frankly  admit  their  own  ignorance  of  vowel  quantity  and 
proclaim  their  despair  of  ever  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  it.  It  is  not  long  since  I  Hstened  to  a  professor  of 
high  position  who  gave  at  an  educational  meeting  an 
illustration  of  his  method  of  reading  Latin  poetry. 
The  reading  was  prefaced  with  the  candid  declaration 
that  the  reader  had  never  pretended  to  acquire  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  Latin  vowel  quantities  and  de- 
spaired of  ever  succeeding  in  doing  so.  The  reading 
which  followed  proved  the  correctness  of  this  state- 
ment. The  opening  hne  of  Horace,  Odes^  i.  23,  was 
read  thus: 

Vitas  inuleo  me  similis  Chl5g, 

and  was  followed  by  similar  violations  of  vocalic  and 
syllabic  quantity. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  only  those  who  have  devoted 
long  and  patient  attention  to  the  subject,  and  who 
practise  frequent  oral  reading,  can  pronounce  Latin 
with  accuracy  according  to  the  Roman  method.  My 
observation  teaches  me  that  those  who  ever  attain  this 
accompHshment  are  so  few  in  number  as  to  constitute 
practically  a  negligible  quantity. 

The  foregoing  practical  considerations,  based  upon 
the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  Roman  pronunciation, 
coupled  with  the  practically  universal  failure  to  adhere 
to  its  principles,  have  long  seemed  to  my  mind  valid 
grounds  for  its  abandonment.  Those  who  urge  its 
retention  on  the  ground  of  its  ease  certainly  are  inex- 
cusably blind  to  the  facts.  Those  who  advocate  it  on 
the  ground  that  it  is  a  moral  duty  to  pronounce  Latin 


PRONUNCIATION  77 

as  the  Romans  did,  may  theoretically  have  a  good  case. 
But  certainly  it  can  no  longer  be  held  to  be  a  moral 
duty  to  maintain  a  system  of  pronunciation  which  the 
experience  of  twenty  years  has  shown  to  result  in 
miserable  failure,  and  the  intrinsic  difficulties  of  whose 
accurate  application  are  so  evident.  We  cannot  hope, 
I  believe,  to  secure  appreciably  better  results  than  have 
thus  far  been  achieved,  certainly  not  without  the  ex 
penditure  of  a  vast  amount  of  time  and  energy,  which 
can  ill  be  spared. 

b.  It  brings  no  cojnpensating  advantages.  This  state- 
ment will  doubtless  provoke  dissent,  and  some  may  wish 
to  urge  that  the    acquisition  of  the   vocalic  Brings  ^q 

sounds  of  the  Roman  pronunciation  of  Latin  compensating  e/  O 

-         .  .        1  1         r    1  1  Advantages.       1  '  '  -eiMy^/^JJi 

IS  oi  assistance  m  the  study  oi  the  modern  %ii--     i 

European  languages.     But  this  can  hardly  be  deemed  -C->^  ax^^J^^C^ 
a  serious   argument.      Some  of  the   Latin  vowels   and  ^t^-cytiw  tat 
diphthongs  designate  identical  sounds  in  French  and         ' 
German,  but   quite   as  often   they  are   different;    e.g. 
French  a,  ti,  en,  ei,  ai,  oi;  German  ae,  en,  ei.     Moreover, 
the  apprehension  of  these  constitutes  an  exceedingly 
slight  difficulty. 

Others  urge  the  importance  of  the  quantitative  pro- 
nunciation of  Latin  for  the  reading  of  Latin  poetry; 
and  here,  if  anywhere,  we  might  recognise  a  valid 
reason  for  the  retention  of  the  Roman  pronunciation, 
if  only  our  pupils  acquired,  or  could  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  acquire,  an  accurate  quantitative  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  Latin  language,  and  if  they  combined  with 
this  any  just  conception  of  the  truly  quantitative  nature 
of  Latin  poetry.^  But  so  long  as  the  prevailing  pro- 
nunciation is  practically  oblivious  of  the  difference 
between  long   and   short  vowels,  and   so   long   as   we 


1  See  below,  chapter  vi.,  Latin  Prosody. 


78  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

follow  the  traditional  practice  of  making  Latin  poetry 
accentual,  it  is  idle  to  support  the  retention  of  the 
Roman  pronunciation  on  the  grounds  that  it  contrib- 
utes to  a  capacity  to  appreciate  Latin  poetry  in  its 
true  organic  and  artistic  structure.  A  rigidly  accurate 
quantitative  pronunciation  will  do  this,  provided  we 
eliminate  the  unjustifiable  artificial  stress  ictus,  but  our 
present  proficiency  in  the  Roman  pronunciation,  or  any 
proficiency  we  are  ever,  likely  to  achieve,  will  hardly 
enable  any  considerable  fraction  of  our  students  ever 
to  appreciate  Latin  poetry  as  a  quantitative  rhythm. 

c.  //  does  bring  certain  distinct  disadvantages.  Chief 
among  these  is  the  difficulty  it  adds  to  the  beginning 
Disadvantages. '^^^^  ^^  Latin.  I  am  forced  to  believe  that 
the  acquisition  of  the  forms  is  very  much 
easier  under  the  English  pronunciation,  where  the  entire 
energy  of  the  pupil  can  be  devoted  to  the  forms  them- 
selves without  the  embarrassment  which  the  difficulties 
of  a  strange  pronunciation  inevitably  impose. 

Another  serious  disadvantage  is  the  chaos  it  has 
wrought  in  our  current  pronunciation  of  classical 
proper  names,  Latin  quotations,  proverbs,  technical 
terms,  legal  phrases,  titles  of  classical  works,  etc.  It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  reach  any  satisfactory  basis  for 
pronouncing  these.  The  Roman  pronunciation  seems 
awkward  and  affected,  and  is  to  many  unintelligible, 
while  to  those  who  have  been  taught  the  Roman  pronun- 
ciation any  other  is  difficult.  The  result  is  a  condition 
of  aff"airs  that  is  keenly  felt  by  many  classes  of  society, 
—  by  none  perhaps  more  than  by  the  teachers  of  Latin, 
who,  while  protesting  against  the  present  anarchy,  find 
themselves  at  a  loss  to  effect  any  radical  improvement. 

The  foregoing  are  the  considerations  which  have  for 
years  weighed  with  me,  and  which  have  finally  com- 


P  RON  UNCI  A  TION  79 

pelled  me  to  believe  that  the  retention  of  our  present 
unmethodical  "  method "  of  pronouncing  Latin  has 
proved  itself  a  serious  mistake.  Fifteen  years  ago  my 
zeal  for  the  Roman  pronunciation  was  unbounded.  For 
years  I  have  been  a  conscientious  student  of  the  histori- 
cal and  linguistic  evidence  bearing  upon  this  subject. 
For  years  I  cherished  the  hope  that  with  time  and 
better  teaching  a  decided  improvement  in  the  results 
yielded  by  the  Roman  pronunciation  would  manifest 
itself.  But  I  am  now  convinced  that  no  such  advance 
has  been  apparent,  and  that  it  will  not,  can  not,  ought 
not  to  be.  So  long  as  we  retain  the  Roman  pronuncia- 
tion, while  nominally  making  that  our  standard,  we 
shall  in  reality  be  far  from  exemplifying  that  method  in 
our  practice.  We  shall  be  guilty  of  pretending  to  do 
one  thing,  while  we  really  are  doing  something  else.  I 
hesitate  to  believe  that  such  disingenuousness  can  per- 
manently commend  itself  to  thoughtful  teachers.  I 
have  above  mentioned  the  fact  that  certain  educators 
advocate  the  employment  of  the  Roman  pronunciation 
on  moral  grounds,  urging  that  it  is  our  bounden  duty 
to  apply  what  we  know  to  be  true.  It  is  equally  on 
moral  grounds  (among  others)  that  I  would  urge  the 
immediate  abandonment  of  the  Roman  pronunciation. 
We  are  not  just  to  ourselves,  we  are  not  just  to  our 
students,  so  long  as  we  encourage  the  present  hypo- 
critical practice.  The  English  pronunciation  is  at  least 
honest.  It  confessedly  violates  vowel  quantity,  though 
I  doubt  whether  it  actually  does  so  any  more  than  the 
Roman  method  as  actually  employed.  But  it  is  simple, 
easily  applied,  and  reheves  the  beginner  especially  of 
one  important  element  of  difficulty  and  discouragement. 
The  educators  of  other  countries  have  shown  much 
greater  wisdom  in  this  matter  of  Latin  pronunciation 
than  have  we.     England  and  Germany  have  witnessed 


80  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

efforts  to  introduce  the  Roman  pronunciation,  but  the 
sober  conservative  sense  of  German  and  English  edu- 
cators has  thus  far  resisted,  and  probably  will  continue 
successfully  to  resist,  this  unwise  spirit  of  innovation. 
In  America  we  are  unfortunately  too  prone  to  view  with 
favour  any  new  idea,  educational  or  other,  and  to  em- 
bark precipitately  in  experiments  which  involve  serious 
consequences.  Undue  pressure,  I  think,  is  often  ex- 
erted upon  the  schools  by  college  teachers.  Many  of 
these,  in  their  enthusiasm  for  the  scientific  aspects  of 
their  own  professional  work,  exhibit  a  tendency  to 
demand  that  the  teaching  of  their  subject  in  the  second- 
ary schools  shall  be  conducted  with  express  reference 
to  the  ultimate  needs  of  the  higher  scholarship.  This 
attitude  manifests  itself  in  many  matters  of  educational 
policy  connected  with  Latin,  and  in  my  judgment  in- 
volves great  danger  to  the  best  interests  of  the  schools. 
The  prime  question  in  the  teaching  of  every  subject  in 
our  schools  should  be  the  present  educational  needs  of 
the  pupils.  Pedagogical  procedure  should  be  governed 
by  these  considerations.  In  other  words,  pupils  do  not 
exist  for  Latin,  but  Latin  exists  for  the  pupils.  The 
needs,  real  or  fancied,  of  the  higher  scholarship  have  no 
claim  to  consideration  as  compared  with  the  rational 
satisfaction  of  the  pupils'  present  interests. 


III.  The  "Inductive"  Method. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Cauer,  Paxil.  Grammatica  Militans,  1898.  Chapter  ii.  "  Induktion 
und  Deduktion." 

Wenzel,  Alfred.  Der  Todeskampf  des  altsprachlichen  Unterrichts. 
Berlin.     Carl  Duncker's  Verlag.     1899.    pp.  19-41. 

A  discussion  of  the  "  Inductive "  Method  may  seem 
somewhat    academic.      At    present    certainly    in    this 


THE   ''INDUCTIVE''  METHOD  8 1 

country  such  a  discussion  is  no  longer  a  practical  one. 
Books  constructed  professedly  on  an  inductive  plan 
have  met  with  severe  criticism,  and  those  specimens  of 
them  which  have  thus  far  been  offered  to  the  educa- 
tional public  have  been,  I  think,  quite  generally  rec- 
ognised as  involving  serious  pedagogical  defects.  Still, 
fairness  compels  the  admission  that  the  so-called  *'  induc- 
tive "  method  has  not  yet  had  a  fair  trial  upon  the  basis 
of  its  own  merits.  The  radical  defects  of  the  "  induc- 
tive "  Latin  books  for  beginners  which  I  have  known 
have  seemed  to  me  to  He  not  so  much  in  the  inherent 
weakness  of  the  method  professedly  followed  as  in  some 
other  features.  Harper  and  Burgess's  Inductive  Latin 
Primer  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  I  mean.  The 
defects  of  this  book  in  my  judgment  are  fairly  rep- 
resented by  the  type  of  beginner's  books  which  were 
under  discussion  in  an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter, 
pp.  51-66.  We  note  the  same  unsystematic  arrange- 
ment, the  same  dissociation  of  things  belonging  together, 
the  same  mistaken  endeavour  to  teach  a  little  of  every- 
thing at  one  time,  which  we  considered  above.  These 
defects  seem  to  me  so  serious  as  to  have  prevented  the 
possibility  of  a  fair  judgment  upon  the  merits  of  the 
feature  which  has  given  the  title  to  the  book,  namely,  its 
so-called  "  inductive  "  character. 

In  order  to  understand  what  this  feature  promises  for 
Latin  instruction,  let  us  examine  precisely  what  it  in- 
volves. The  essential  feature  of  the  method  ^^^^  ^^ 
receives  illustration  in  the  opening  lesson  of  "inductive" 
the  book  referred  to.  Its  essence  seems  to 
consist  in  giving  an  illustration  of  a  principle,  and  en- 
couraging the  pupil  to  deduce  the  principle  from  the 
illustration.  Thus  it  is  pointed  out  that  Gallia  is 
accented  on  the  first  syllable,  dlvisa,  omuls,  partes,  on 
the  second,  and  from  these  facts  the  pupil  is  to  study 

6 


82  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

out  the  principles  of  accentuation.  So  with  the  other 
facts  and  principles  of  the  language.  Instead  of  the 
statement  of  a  principle  followed  by  an  illustration  of  it^ 
the  pupil  is  to  work  out  and  determine  the  principle  for 
himself  by  observation  and  reflection.  The  plan  rep- 
The  Name  resents,  therefore,  a  definite  educational  the- 
a  Misnomer,  ory.  The  name  "  inductive,"  however,  seems 
a  thorough  misnomer.  Any  proper  induction  (in  any 
sense  of  the  word  with  which  I  am  familiar)  consists  in 
bringing  together  all  the  facts  or,  at  least,  all  the  possi^ 
ble  types  of  facts  bearing  upon  some  one  problem,  and 
then  determining  from  these  the  principle  which  they 
prove.  In  the  book  before  us,  the  pupil  is  given  to 
understand  that  the  facts  are  typical ;  hence  he  really 
institutes  no  truly  inductive  process ;  ^  he  merely  inter- 
prets the  meaning  of  an  example  which  some  one  else 
by  processes  truly  inductive  has  discovered  to  be  typical. 
This  inaccuracy  of  nomenclature,  however,  does  not  bear 
vitally  upon  the  merits  of  the  method,  except  so  far  as 
it  may  mislead  both  teacher  and  pupil  to  believe  they  are 
pursuing  a  severer  mental  process  than  is  really  the  case. 
The  purpose  of  the  method,  such  as  it  is,  may  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  the  stimulating  of  the  pupil's  observational 
and  reflective  powers.  Whether  it  be  wise  to 
of  Question-  utilize  the  beginning  Latin  work  for  this  pur- 
abie  Wis-  ^q^q  seems  open  to  serious  question.  Per- 
sonally I  have  had  no  experience  with  this 
method  of  learning  the  elements  of  the  language,  — 
particularly  the  accidence ;  but  the  experience  of  those 


1  The  process,  in  fact,  is  a  truly  deductive  one.  Formally,  it  amounts 
to  this :  I.  The  example  before  us  illustrates  a  universal  principle. 
2.  The  example  before  us  illustrates  the  following  truth  {e.  g.  that  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive  stands  in  the  accusative  case,  or  that  adjectives  of 
fulness  are  construed  with  the  genitive).  3.  Therefore  it  is  a  universal 
principle  that  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  stands  in  the  accusative,  or 
that  adjectives  of  fulness  are  construed  with  the  genitive. 


THE  ''INDUCTIVE''  METHOD  83 

who  have  attempted  to  apply  it  has  impressed  me  with 
the  belief  that  it  is  neither  effective  nor  economical. 
The  later  study  of  Latin  is  so  rich  in  the  opportunities 
it  affords  for  the  cultivation  of  the  observational  and 
reflective  powers,  that  it  seems  safer  to  defer  for  the 
first  three  or  four  months  of  Latin  study  any  special 
attention  to  these  ends.  It  certainly  will  be  not  only 
safe,  but  a  positive  duty,  to  do  this,  unless  experience 
can  show  that  this  so-called  "  inductive "  method  of 
learning  the  sounds,  accentuation,  forms,  and  inflections 
of  Latin  is  an  easier  and  briefer  way  of  mastering  them. 
That  experience  ever  will  show  this,  I  doubt.  Obser- 
vation and  reason  have  never  proved  very  helpful 
assistants  in  memorizing  any  large  body  of  facts,  such 
as  the  forms  of  a  highly  inflected  language.  Reason,  I 
fear,  hinders  rather  than  helps  in  such  a  task.  Such  a 
task  seems  to  me  rather  a  function  of  the  retentive 
memory,  a  faculty  whose  importance  we  have  lately 
shown  such  a  mistaken  tendency  to  ignore.  An  exclu- 
sive cultivation  of  the  memory  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  faculties  is  certainly  most  deplorable.  But  mem- 
ory has  its  important  functions,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  in  avoiding  the  abuse  of  this  faculty  we  may  not  be 
betrayed  into  ignoring  and  neglecting  its  legitimate 
utilization. 

In  his  Grammatica  Militans,  Paul  Cauer,  one  of  the 
soberest  and  most  thoughtful  of  German  classical  edu- 
cators, thus  expresses  himself  on  the  subject  cauer's 
of  the  ''  Inductive  "  Method  as  its  workings  Criticisms, 
have  been  observed  by  him  in  German  schools  (Chapter 
ii. :  "  Induktion  und  Deduktion,"  p.  25)  :  "  In  the  exact 
sciences,  all  know  how  difficult  —  not  to  say  impossible 
—  it  is  to  establish  a  complete  inductive  proof,  and 
how  difficult  it  is  to  avoid  the  errors  which  are  neces- 
sarily involved  in  the  limited  material  at  one's  disposal. 


84  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

Yet  in  the  school  in  studying  grammar,  after  three/ 
four,  or,  if  you  will,  ten  examples  have  been  adduced, 
the  pupil  is  encouraged  to  conclude,  '  Therefore  it  is 
always  true  that,  etc'  Instead  of  this,  the  teacher 
should  always  remind  the  pupil  that  no  proof  has  really 
been  adduced,  and  that  the  principle  to  which  attention 
has  been  called  in  one  or  two  examples  has  been  estab- 
lished by  the  labours  of  scholars  who  have  carefully 
examined  the  literary  monuments  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages.  .  .  .  Otherwise  there  is  propagated 
by  teaching,  instead  of  the  blessings  of  an  inductive 
process,  merely  the  tendency  to  precipitate  generaliza- 
tion, —  a  tendency  always  too  natural,  —  as  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  the  Englishman  who  returned  from  Heidel- 
berg with  the  conviction  that  it  always  rained  there,  since 
he  had  twice  so  found  it.  .  .  .  The  passage  from  the 
particular  to  the  general,  from  fact  to  law,  is  not  the  only 
method  of  acquiring  new  knowledge ;  the  reverse  process 
is  equally  justified.  .  .  .  Which  process  is  best,  must  be 
decided  in  each  special  case  by  the  nature  of  the  subject." 
As  regards  **  inductive  "  treatment  of  the  forms,  Cauer 
(p.  26)  says :  "  In  the  first  weeks  of  the  study  of  a  new 
language  the  pupil  is  inspired  with  a  burning  zeal  for 
learning  much ;  he  has  a  veritable  hunger  for  extensive 
acquisition.  The  teacher  should  gratify  this  disposi- 
tion; he  should  utilize  it,  and  not  weary  the  pupils 
with  a  method  which  is  in  place  only  where  one  is 
reviewing  matter  already  familiar  for  the  purpose  of 
discovering  the  laws  to  which  it  conforms.  Later  also 
in  the  syntax  there  are  many  instances  in  which  it  is 
both  simpler  and  more  instructive  to  derive  the  truth 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject  under  discussion  rather 
than  from  observation." 


1  Our  American  books  have  mostly  contented  themselves  with  one. 


READING  AT  SIGHT  8$ 


IV.   Reading  at  Sight. 

'Reading  at  sight'  is  used  in  two  senses;  in  one 
sense  it  designates  the  reading  of  a  passage  from  some 
classical  author  in  the  original  Latin  in  such  -v^at  it 
a  way  as  to  appreciate  and  feel  its  content  Means, 
without  translation  mental  or  oral,  but  precisely  as  one 
would  feel  a  similar  passage  in  one's  own  vernacular. 
In  the  other  sense  *  reading  at  sight '  designates  the  trans- 
lation into  English  of  a  passage  never  before  seen.  In 
the  discussion  which  follows  I  shall  restrict  the  expres- 
sion *  reading  at  sight '  to  the  first  of  these  two  senses/ 
and  in  later  discussing  the  second  process  shall  employ 
the  phrase  '  translation  at  sight.' 

With  the  appearance  of  Professor  Hale's  fascinating 
and  stimulating  paper,  The  Art  of  Latin  Reading  (Bos- 
ton, 1887),  the  suggestion  was  first  definitely  professor 
put  before  teachers  and  pupils  that  by  the  Hale's 
proper  method  of  study  it  was  possible  at  ^^p  ^  • 
a  relatively  early  stage  of  one's  Latin  study  to  learn  to 
apprehend  even  the  more  complex  periods  of  Cicero's 
orations  as  rapidly  as  read  by  the  eye  or  heard  by  the 
ear.  To  acquire  this  power,  Professor  Hale  recom- 
mended habituating  one's  self  from  the  very  beginning 
of  Latin  study  to  extensive  oral  reading.  As  the  Latin 
word-order  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  in 
the  comprehension  of  a  Latin  sentence,  the  pupil  was 
urged  consciously  to  ask  himself  at  each  word  of  a  new 
sentence,  Just  what  bearing  or  bearings  may  this  word 
have?,  and  holding  his  several  conclusions  in  suspense 
was  bidden  to  press  on  to  the  end,  precisely  as  in  the 
case  of  his  own  language.     Faithful  application  of  these 


1  It  is,  of  course,  obvious  that  the  two  processes  are  not  necessarily 
mutually  exclusive.    I  separate  them  for  the  purposes  of  discussion. 


/ 


S6  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

principles,  it  was  promised,  should  enable  the  pupil,  as 
he  progressed  in  his  Latin  study,  to  understand  Latin 
without  the  necessity  of  a  translation.  Professor  Hale 
included  in  his  paper  well-chosen  illustrations  of  the  way 
the  pupil's  mind  should  act  in  attaining  the  promised 
goal,  and  new  visions  of  the  millennium  thrilled  the 
hearts  of  those  who  were  so  fortunate  as  to  listen  to 
the  original  exposition  of  his  views  at  the  Conference 
of  Academic  Principals  held  at  Syracuse  in  December, 
1886. 

Since  Professor  Hale's  pamphlet  appeared  (and  inci- 
dentally before  that  time),*  Professor  Greenough  has 
Professor  given  forcible  expression  to  views  practically 
Greenough.  identical  with  those  presented  by  Professor 
Hale.  In  the  Preface  to  his  "edition  of  Eutropius  (Bos- 
ton, 1892)  he  thus  concludes  his  remarks  on  this  ques- 
tion :  *'  The  essence  of  all  this  is,  that  to  learn  to  read 
a  language  the  words  must  be  taken  as  they  come, 
with  the  ideas  they  are  supposed  to  convey,  and  must 
be  forced  to  make  a  mental  picture  in  that  order^ 
no  matter  whether  the  order  is  familiar  or  not."^ 
More  recently  still  the  Commission  of  New  England 
Colleges  has  urged*  that  a  very  large  amount  of  atten- 
tion be  paid  to  reading  at  sight  in  the  new  scheme  of 
instruction  which  they  have  lately  recommended  to  the 
secondary  schools  of  New  England  for  adoption.  The 
eminent  standing  of  the  advocates  of  the  new  theory 
naturally  claims  for  their  views  the "  most  serious  con- 
sideration, and  it  is  because  I  am  not  familiar  with  any 


1  For  example,  in  the  Introduction  to  his  edition  of  Cicero's  Orations. 
Boston,  1886. 

2  The  italics  are  mine. 

8  Cf.  also  the  similar  tenor  of  Professor  Flagg's  remarks  in  the  Preface 
to  his  edition  of  Nepos.     Boston,  1895. 

*  See  the  Report  of  their  action  in  the  SCHOOL  Review  for  December, 
1895. 


READING  A  T  SIGHT  8/ 

previous  discussion  of  the  subject  that  I  venture  here 

to  express  some  doubts  as  to  the   soundness  and  the 

practical   possibilities    of   the   theories    so  confidently 

championed. 

A  favourite  appeal  with  those  who  lay  stress  upon  the 

importance  of  reading  at  sight  is  to  the  fact  that  children 

in  learning  a  language  learn  it  not  through 

^u  A'  c    \-   \-  ^   A  A    .         1        Subjective 

the  medium  oi  objective  study  and  transla-  Acquisition  of 

tion,  but  by  direct  interpretation  of  what  they  ^o^^s^^  ^^n- 

hear  or  read.      "  Why,"  they  ask,  "  should 

not  Latin  and  Greek  be  acquired  in  the  same  way?" 

A  proper  answer  to  this  question  seems  to  involve  the 
consideration  of  two  others ;  first,  What  is  the  purpose 
of  Latin  study  in  the  secondary  school  ?  and,  purpose  of 
second.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  intellectual  ^^  study, 
training  gained  by  acquiring  a  language  in  the  subject- 
ive way  that  is  regular  with  children? 

To  the  first  of  these  two  questions  I  can  still  see  no 
other  answer  than  that  which  I  undertook  to  formulate 
and  defend  in  the  first  chapter  of  this  volume.  As 
there  set  forth,  the  only  rational  justification  of  the 
study  of  Latin  in  our  secondary  schools  seems  to  me 
to  be  found  in  its  unique  effect  in  stimulating  and  ele- 
vating the  pupil's  intellectual  processes,  and  most  of 
all  in  the  increased  mastery  over  the  resources  of  the 
mother  tongue  which  it  confers.  As  previously  main- 
tained, these  results  come  naturally  from  careful  daily 
translation  under  wise  guidance. 

In  order  properly  to  answer  the  second  question, 
namely,  that  as  to  the  value  of  the  subjective  acquisition 
of  a  foreign  language,  the  attainment  of  a  capacity  for 
direct  interpretation  without  the  medium  of  translation, 
let  us  assume  that  an  American  boy  of  ten  goes  abroad 
and  resides  at  Paris  or  Berlin.  It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
such  a  boy  rapidly  acquires  a  certain  command  of  French 


88  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

or  German.  To  the  person  who  has  no  oral  command 
of  those  languages,  the  performance  of  such  a  youth 
after  a  year's  foreign  residence  would  be  impressive  to  a 
degree.     But  what  has  the  lad  really  acquired,  and  what 

is  the  significance  of  his  acquisition  from  the 
tionai  VaiuT'  purely  educational  point  of  view?  The  actual 
of  Subjective    acquisition  does  not  go  beyond  a  capacity  to 

express  the  limited  range  of  his  ordinary 
ideas.  His  vocabulary  is  small.  As  regards  the  edu- 
cational worth  of  his  new-found  capacity,  it  has  given 
him  no  mental  stimulus,  no  new  powers  of  discrimina- 
tion or  analysis.  Least  of  all  has  it  given  him  any 
increased  mastery  over  his  own  native  language.  In 
fact,  as  he  has  become  subjectively  familiar  with  a  new 
tongue,  the  chances  are  that  he  has  proportionately  lost 
command  of  his  own.  Educationally  apparently  the 
boy's  new  acquisition  marks  no  positive  intellectual 
Worthiessness  S^i^'  ^^^  could  it  fairly  be  expected  to  do 
of  Imitative     so;   for  the  process  of  acquisition   has  been 

purely  imitative,  or  practically  so,  and  such 
a  boy  might  go  on  indefinitely,  learning  a  new  language 
a  year  in  the  same  way,  without  essentially  strengthen- 
ing his  intellectual  fibre  or  increasing  his  intellectual 
range.  Educational  processes  after  the  very  earliest 
years  are  no  longer  imitative.  They  are  rather  dis- 
criminative and  constructive.  They  must  involve  com- 
parison and  judgment,  and  no  employment  of  the  pupil's 
attention  which  ignores  this  principle  can  be  expected 
to  yield  fruit  of  value. 

Those,  now,  who  insist  so  strenuously  on  the  impor- 
tance of  the  direct  subjective  interpretation  of  Latin  at 
the  very  outset  of  the  study  seem  to  me  to  advocate  the 
acquisition  of  something  which  in  the  first  place  can  be 
attained  only  by  an  imitative  process,  and  which,  if  at- 
tained, is  not  likely  to  be  of  any  greater  educational 


READING  AT  SIGHT  89 

utility  than  the  capacity  to  understand  colloquial  French 
or  German  which  an  American  lad  might  acquire  by  a 
moderate  period  of  foreign  residence.  If,  now,  Latin  is 
to  be  retained  as  a  basal  subject  of  instruction  in  our 
schools,  is  it  desirable  that  the  pupil  be  initiated  at  the 
outset  into  a  subjective  apprehension  of  the  language? 
Would  not  the  chief  usefulness  of  Latin  as  an  instrument 
of  intellectual  discipline  vanish  the  moment  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  passed  from  its  objective  to  its  subject- 
ive contemplation?  So  soon  as  such  a  transition  was 
effected  all  need  of  translation  would  at  once  disappear, 
and  with  it  those  minute  and  searching  mental  processes, 
which  now  constitute  the  most  important  functions  of 
the  study,  and  which  give  it  its  superior  title  to  a  place 
in  the  curriculum  of  our  schools. 

Just  so  far  then  as  reading  at  sight  abridges  atten- 
tion to  conscientious  translation  into  idiomatic  Eng- 
lish, just  so  far  must  those  who  believe  in  the  vitalizing 
and  informing  influence  of  such  translation  believe  that 
reading  at  sight  introduces  into  our  secondary  educa- 
tion an  element  which  is  undesirable,  —  simply  because 
it  interferes  with  what  is  desirable. 

But  it  may  be  said  by  the  advocates  of  reading  at 
sight,  *'  No  one  disputes  the  value  of  translation.  All 
we  maintain  is  that  reading  at  sight  furnishes  a  disci- 
pline just  as  good  or  better,  and  hence  equally  entitled 
to  recognition."  The  validity  of  this  last  position  seems 
so  questionable  that  we  shall  do  well  to  examine  it  more 
fully.  The  result  which  the  exercise  of  Reading  at  Sight 
aims  to  achieve  is  the  subjective  apprehension  of  the 
language,  a  feeling  for  Latin  as  Latin.  Obviously  such 
a  result  can  be  obtained  for  Latin  only  in  the  same  way 
as  in  case  of  other  languages,  namely,  by  imitative  pro 
cesses.  Professor  Hale  and  others  urge,  in  fact,  that  the 
beginning  pupil  put  himself  in  the  same  attitude  as  the 


90  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

Roman  boy  of  nineteen  centuries  ago.  But  was  such  a 
process  an  educative  one  to  the  Roman  boy?  If  it  was 
not,  is  it  likely  to  be  to  the  boy  of  to-day?  Or  if  it  be 
claimed  that  to  the  Roman  boy  it  was  distinctively  edu- 
cative, why  is  not  the  acquisition  of  our  own  tongue  in 
precisely  the  same  way  of  distinctively  educative  value, 
and  why  does  it  not  accomplish  ideal  results?  It  cannot 
be  too  clearly  borne  in  mind,  I  believe,  that  it  is  not  the 
knowing  a  language  that  is  primarily  of  educational 
utility.  If  that  were  so,  the  polyglot  couriers  and  kell- 
ners  and  portiers  of  the  continental  hotels  ought  to  be 
the  most  highly  cultivated  persons  of  contemporary 
society.  How  many  of  them  are  able  to  speak  with 
fluency  and  accuracy  four  or  five  different  languages ! 
These  men  have  learned  English,  French,  German, 
Italian  in  the  very  way  that  we  are  told  is  so  desirable 
for  Latin.  They  feel  English  as  English,  French  as 
French,  German  as  German,  Italian  as  Italian.  No  de- 
tails of  word-order  trouble  them.  No  necessity  for  even 
a  mental  translation  into  terms  of  their  own  vernacular. 
All  is  subjective,  as  it  should  be.  The  appeal  is  as  direct 
as  was  Cave  canem  !  to  a  Roman  boy.  And  yet  what 
intellectual  furtherance  has  ever  come  from  such  linguis- 
tic attainments?  In  fact,  ought  we  to  expect  it  to  come? 
Must  not  such  intellectual  growth  for  pupils  in  the 
secondary  school  come  from  processes  of  reflection  and 
comparison,  rather  than  from  those  of  imitation?  Per- 
sonally I  am  convinced  that  they  must  so  come.  And 
so  I  say  again :  To  interpret  Latin  directly,  to  feel  it 
as  a  Roman  felt  it,  is  a  facility  that  can  be  acquired 
(if  at  all)  only  as  the  Roman  acquired  it,  namely,  by 
imitative  processes ;  and  these  processes  do  seem  to  be 
lacking  in  any  tonic  educational  value  which  warrants 
their  recognition  as  instruments  of  the  secondary  edu- 
cation. 


READING  AT  SIGHT  91 

But  there  are  those  who  advocate  the  subjective  acqui- 
sition of  Latin  on  other  grounds,  namely,  aesthetic  ones. 
Is  it  worth  while,  they  ask,  for  students  to  ^thetic 
study  Latin  four  years  in  the  school,  unless  Grounds  are 
they  acquire  a  feeling  for  Latin  and  learn  to  '^ 
enjoy  it?  Now  I  have  a  regard  for  what  is  beautiful,  and 
I  certainly  believe  in  cultivating  the  aesthetic  sense,  but  I 
cannot  bring  myself  to  believe  that  the  purpose  of  Latin 
study  is  primarily  an  aesthetic  one,  and  that  the  chief 
goal  is  the  attainment  of  a  nice  feeling  for  the  cadence 
and  rhythm  of  the  Latin  sentence,  so  that  the  culmina- 
tion of  a  four  years*  course  shall  be  a  capacity  to  revel 
in  the  flow  of  Cicero's  periods  or  in  the  long  roll  of  the 
hexameter,  or,  failing  this,  to  be  condemned  to  look 
back  upon  wasted  hours  and  neglected  opportunities. 
If  that  be  true,  why  is  it  truer  of  Latin  than  of  geometry? 
We  hold  up  no  such  peculiar  ideal  for  the  latter  study.  To 
reap  value  from  geometry  it  is  not  thought  necessary  that 
the  pupil  should  feel  a  thrill  of  rapture  over  the  contem- 
plation of  an  isosceles  triangle  or  an  inscribed  hexagon. 
Why  should  we  magnify  the  aesthetic  aim  of  feeling 
Latin  any  more  than  feeling  geometry?  There  might 
possibly  be  reason  for  so  doing,  did  Latin  offer  oppor- 
tunities for  culture  in  no  other  way.  But  will  any  one 
seriously  maintain  such  a  thesis? 

There  are  still  others  who  are  incessant  in  their  asser- 
tion that  it  is  the  reproach  of  Latin  study  that  a  youth 
who  has  spent  four  years  on  Latin  does  not 
acquire  a  sufficient  mastery  of  the  language    suits  of  Latin 

to  enable  him  to  read  Latin  with  ease  and  study  Defec- 
tive, 
speed,  or  to  continue  his  study  of  Latin  litera- 
ture with  pleasure  and  enthusiasm.  It  certainly  is  be- 
yond question  that  the  great  majority  of  young  men 
when  they  reach  college  do  not  turn  with  relish  to  Latin, 
and  it  is  even  truer  that  in  after  years  they  do  not  evince 


92  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

a  disposition  to  beguile  any  considerable  part  of  their 
leisure  in  the  perusal  of  Latin  literature.  This  condition 
of  affairs  I  admit  is  beyond  question.  But  what  conclu- 
sions are  we  justified  in  drawing  from  it  ?  Have  we  a  right 
to  assume  that  all  young  men  when  they  enter  college 
ought  to  turn  with  avidity  to  the  study  of  Latin  ?  Have  we 
a  right  to  assume  further  that  after  graduation  the  proper 
employment  for  one's  leisure  time  is  the  continuation  of 
one's  study  of  the  classics  ?  And  with  this  assumption 
as  our  major  premise,  have  we  a  right  to  assume  as  our 
minor  premise  that  students  would  turn  eagerly  to  Latin 
in  college,  and  that  college  graduates  would  assiduously 
pursue  the  study  of  Latin  literature,  if  only  the  capacity 
for  reading  at  sight  were  theirs  ?  We  should  then  get 
this  syllogism : 

1.  All  college  students  ought  to  study  Latin  with  en- 
thusiasm, and  all  college  graduates  ought  to  turn  with 
zest  to  the  study  of  Latin  literature, 

2.  If  the  persons  referred  to  could  read  Latin  at 
sight  they  would  do  these  things. 

Therefore,  all  pupils  should  be  taught  to  read  at  sight. 

But  with  all  my  interest  in  Latin  and  all  my  convic- 
tion of  its  abounding  importance,  both  for  discipline  and 
culture,  yet  I  cannot  assent  to  either  of  the  two  premises 
just  mentioned. 

As  a  preparation  for  college,  both  reason  and  experi- 
ence seem  to  me  to  show  that  Latin  is  not  only  the 
best  single  instrument,  but  practically  an  indispensable 
instrument;  but  for  the  average  man  in  college  I  say 
with  all  frankness  I  do  not  believe  that  extensive  special- 
ization in  Latin  is  a  sine  qua  non.  The  secondary  edu- 
cation is  essentially  disciplinary.  The  college  cannot 
afford,  and  does  not  pretend,  to  restrict  its  energies  to 
that  goal.  It  aims  at  imparting  breadth  of  view,  it  aims 
at  depth  and  soundness  of  knowledge  in  some  few  lines. 


READING  AT  SIGHT  93 

Above  all,  it  recognises  the  relation  of  the  educated 
man  to  the  state  and  to  society ;  it  recognises  the  neces- 
sity of  bringing  the  student  into  close  and  sympathetic 
touch  with  the  problems  of  modern  hfe  and  thought. 
Now,  in  the  quest  of  this  ideal  the  classics  undoubtedly 
have  their  part,  but  with  all  their  usefulness  and  all 
their  pre-eminence  they  certainly  do  not  contain  the 
bulk  of  the  "  best  that  has  been  thought  and  said,"  and 
do  not  pretend  to  monopolize  the  field  of  culture. 
Professed  teachers  of  the  classics  ought  to  be  the  first 
to  realize  this  in  theory,  as  I  believe  they  actually  do  in 
practice,  so  far  as  they  make  any  impression  on  the 
thought  and  action  of  to-day. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  for  a  moment  that  I  believe 
a  liberally  educated  college  man  can  dispense  with 
Latin  or  even  safely  with  Greek  in  his  college  course, 
but  can  we  any  longer  say  in  candour — if  indeed  we 
ever  could  —  that  these  studies  should  form  the  chief 
and  central  object  of  attention  of  the  college  student, 
and  that  the  test  of  his  being  on  the  right  course  is  to 
be  found  in  the  spontaneous  enthusiasm  with  which  he 
addresses  himself  to  their  pursuit? 

I  have  just  been  endeavouring  to  say  that  the  college 
student  may,  in  my  judgment,  be  making  wise  use  of  his 
advantages  for  self-improvement  even  though  he  fail 
to  manifest  that  absorbing  devotion  to  classics  to  which 
I  have  referred. 

I  wish  also  to  ask :  Are  there  not  other  reasons,  and 
valid  reasons,  why  the  average  educated  man  in  college 
and  out  should  not  be  expected  to  evince  a  profound 
absorption  in  Latin  literature?  How  much  of  Latin  is 
primarily  attractive  to  the  average  cultivated  man? 
What  are  the  Latin  authors  to  communion  with  which 
such  a  man  should  be  expected  to  apply  his  leisure? 
Shall  he  devote  it  to  Plautus   and  Terence  with  their 


94  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

scant  dramatic  variety  and  wearisome  repetition  of 
brazen  courtesan,  tricky  slave,  simple  father,  and  brag- 
gart soldier?  Shall  he  devote  it  to  Cato  and  Varro, 
with  their  old  recipes  of  how  to  plant  beans  or  the 
best  way  to  manure  a  field?  Shall  he  devote  it  to 
Lucretius  even?  Will  the  noble  enthusiasm  of  that 
writer  and  his  occasional  magnificent  bursts  of  poetry 
be  compensation  for  the  long  and  tedious  discussion 
of  puerile  physical  and  metaphysical  theories?  Even 
when  we  come  to  Cicero,  how  many  of  that  great  writer's 
works  can  be  counted  on  to  make  an  appeal  to  the 
sympathy  and  intelligence  of  the  average  cultivated 
man  of  to-day?  He  would  be  hardy  who  should  say 
that  the  proportion  is  large.  The  best  of  Virgil  and 
Horace,  of  Livy  and  Tacitus,  has  presumably  been  read 
in  school  and  college,  and  to  these  he  will  often  return ; 
but  will  he  find  strength  and  inspiration  in  the  other 
Augustan  poets  or  in  the  later  poetry  of  the  imperial 
era,  overloaded  as  it  is  with  mythological  detail  and 
studied  rhetorical  embellishment?  I  am  speaking  of 
the  average  educated  man.  For  such  a  man  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that,  when  we  consider  the  wealth  of  the 
world's  literature  outside  of  Latin,  when  we  consider 
the  masterpieces  of  the  more  recent  centuries,  many  of 
the  greatest  of  them  in  our  own  language  too,  —  when 
we  consider  these,  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  Latin  literature  should  assert  any  such 
paramount  claims. 

To  the  special  student  of  Latin  the  case  is  quite  differ- 
ent. The  professional  teacher  will  and  must  spare  no 
effort  in  familiarizing  himself  with  all  the  literature,  just 
as  he  spares  none  in  studying  the  history  and  growth 
of  the  language,  in  tracing  the  development  of  institu- 
tions, social,  religious,  and  political.  He  will  and  must 
endeavour  to  become  saturated  with  ancient  thought 


READING  AT  SIGHT  95 

and  life.  But  men  of  this  equipment  cannot  be  rela- 
tively numerous,  nor  is  it  desirable  for  the  interests  of 
modern  society  that  they  should  be,  any  more  than 
that  every  man  should  be  a  profound  physicist,  a  pro- 
found chemist,  or  profound  biologist.  Of  the  two  prem- 
ises, then,  which  we  undertook  to  examine,  neither  one 
would  seem  to  rest  upon  a  basis  sufficiently  solid  to 
warrant  its  acceptance.  Even  did  our  freshmen  bring 
to  college  an  ability  to  read  Latin  at  sight,  I  cannot  see 
how  it  would  alter  or  ought  to  alter  the  attention  given 
to  Latin  in  college  or  after  graduation,  simply  because 
adequate  reasons  appear  why  Latin  should  not  consti- 
tute a  more  absorbing  object  of  attention  than  it 
actually  does  at  present.  When,  therefore,  Latin  is 
reproached  because  it  fails  to  accomplish  these  ends, 
it  is  pertinent  to  inquire  whether  the  difficulty  may  not 
be  one  inherent  in  Latin  as  a  study,  and  not  merely 
the  result  of  the  traditional  methods  of  Latin  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools,  and  also  whether  the  ends  which 
it  is  claimed  Latin  as  now  taught  fails  to  achieve  are 
themselves  legitimate  and  indispensable  ends  of  a  liberal 
education.  Why,  then,  reproach  Latin  for  failing  to 
consummate  these  ends?  Why  not  rather  commend 
it  for  what  it  does  accomplish,  and  endeavour  by  wise 
and  fostering  care  to  make  it  realize  even  more  richly 
that  which  experience  has  so  abundantly  shown  it  cap- 
able of  achieving  ? 

In  all  this  discussion  thus  far  I  have  been  conceding 
what   I   really   believe  to   be    impossible,    namely,  the 
acquisition    in    the   secondary  school  of  the    subjective 
power  to  read  Latin  as  Latin  and  to  interpret    Acquisition 

T     .•      ^      .     1-        .1  TVT  •     .  of  Utinlm- 

a  Latm  text   directly.     My   own  conviction    possible  in 

is  that  relatively  little   can  be  accomplished    ^^  School. 

in  this  direction  in  the  schools,  even  under  favourable 

conditions.     Do  we  realize  sufficiently  the  amount  of 


96  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

time  that  is  indispensable  in  acquiring  pronunciation, 
learning  forms  and  vocabulary,  analyzing  words,  tracing 
their  history  and  development  of  meaning,  studying 
syntax,  and  writing  Latin?  Some  time,  too,  is  conceded 
to  translation  even  by  the  most  ardent  adherents  of 
direct  interpretation.  When  all  this  is  done,  how  much 
time  is  likely  to  be  left  in  any  ordinary  school  program 
for  the  acquisition  of  a  subjective  feeling  for  Latin? 
Does  it  not  take  in  the  aggregate  an  enormous  amount 
of  time  to  acquire  a  subjective  feeling  for  a  modern 
language  ?  I  do  not  mean  a  subjective  feeling  merely 
for  a  few  current  phrases  sufficient  to  enable  one  to 
secure  railway  transportation  and  hotel  accommodations 
in  France  or  Germany.  We  are  speaking  of  a  subjec- 
tive acquisition  of  Latin  which  shall  be  adequate  for  the 
interpretation  of  literature.  Can  any  such  subjective 
acquisition  of  French  or  German  be  attained  without 
prolonged  concentration  upon  the  spoken  language? 
Is  it  not  a  mistake,  too,  to  imagine  that  the  chief  diffi- 
culty in  acquiring  a  sense  for  Latin  as  Latin  is  the 
word-order?  Undoubtedly  the  word-order  does  con- 
stitute one  great  obstacle  to  the  pupil,  but  it  is  far 
from  being  the  only  one,  or  the  greatest.  My  own 
experience  with  elementary  pupils  has  shown  me  that 
they  are  ignorant  of  the  meanings  of  words,  they  fail 
to  apprehend  the  force  of  inflections,  they  have  hazy 
or  inaccurate  conceptions  of  syntactical  possibilities, 
they  are  not  adequately  informed  as  to  the  subject 
matter  with  which  the  Latin  text  is  concerned.  Under 
such  circumstances,  there  are  apt  to  be  so  many  ele- 
ments of  uncertainty  in  a  Latin  sentence  that  the  direct 
apprehension  of  its  content  is  simply  impossible  to  the 
average  elementary  pupil.  The  capacity  to  understand 
Latin  as  Latin,  and  to  interpret  it  directly,  must,  it  seems 
to  me,  be  a  matter  of  growth,  and  with  most  pupils  a 


READING  AT  SIGHT  97 

matter  of  slow  growth.  I  do  not  see  how  it  can  come 
until  the  pupil  has  grown  very  familiar  with  individual 
words  for  one  thing,  —  so  familiar  that  the  word  is  no 
longer  objective,  but  subjective,  so  that  as  soon  as  uttered 
its  whole  meaning  flashes  before  him  involuntarily.  So, 
too,  the  pupil  must  come  by  long  practice  to  feel  the 
exact  force  of  inflection,  all  the  numerous  variations  of 
mood,  tense,  voice,  case,  etc.  A  keen  appreciation  for 
word-order  must  also  have  been  developed  as  the  result 
of  repeated  observations  of  its  significance.  All  this 
takes  time,  and  a  great  deal  of  time.  Yet  until  it  has 
been  accomplished  I  fail  to  see  how  the  pupil  can  be 
held  to  read  at  sight  in  the  sense  of  directly  interpret- 
ing a  Latin  author.  Only  then  can  one  do  this  when 
the  process  has  become  thoroughly  unconscious,  and 
after  an  experience  of  many  years  with  freshmen  in 
four  American  universities,  I  have  not  as  yet  had  the 
good  fortune  to  meet  with  pupils  who  seemed  to  me 
to  have  reached  this  stage,  anxious  as  I  have  been  to 
discover  them,  and  thankfully  as  I  should  hail  them  as 
my  own  deliverers  from  many  a  difficulty  which  has  for 
years  given  me  perplexity;  for  after  thirty  years  of 
continuous  study  of  Latin  I  am  still  bound  to  confess 
that  I  think  it  hard,  very  hard.  I  have  read  much,  in 
fact  most  of  the  Latin  literature.  A  few  years  ago  I  sat 
down  to  prepare  a  little  edition  of  Cicero's  de  Senectute. 
For  six  months  all  my  available  leisure,  which  was  then 
considerable,  was  devoted  to  the  completion  of  this 
task.  The  de  Senectute  is  what  would  be  called  easy 
Latin,  hardly  more  difficult  than  one  of  Cicero's  ora- 
tions, and  yet  with  the  help  of  all  the  extensive  literature 
on  the  subject  and  of  several  competent  advisers,  I  am 
still  bound  to  confess  that  there  are  many  points  of 
interpretation  in  that  little  essay  which  are  by  no  means 
clear   to  me,  and  more  where  my  own  interpretation 

7 


98  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

(though  I  am  prepared  to  defend  it)  has  been  adjudged 
anywhere  from  improbable  to  absolutely  impossible  by 
other  scholars.  This  in  the  case  of  a  classic  that  is 
relatively  easy,  whose  text  is  unusually  sound,  and  for 
whose  elucidation  relatively  so  much  has  been  done. 
I  repeat,  I  believe  Latin  to  be  hard,  and  its  accurate 
understanding  and  faithful  interpretation  no  simple 
matter.  We  so  often  fail  to  realize  the  immense  intel- 
lectual gulf  that  separates  us  from  the  past.  It  is  not 
merely  the  structural  difficulties  of  the  Latin  language 
that  make  Latin  a  hard  study;  it  is  even  more  the 
content  of  what  is  recorded  in  that  language.  Latin 
Hterature  consists  not  of  the  doings,  thoughts,  and 
aspirations  of  nineteenth  century  Americans,  but  of  a 
widely  different  people,  different  in  all  their  social,  intel- 
lectual, religious,  and  political  endowments,  attainments, 
and  environment.  When  we  read  Latin,  therefore,  we 
must  not  merely  master  the  technical  difficulties  of  the 
Some  of  the  ^^"^^^  speech,  but  we  must  surmount  the 
Difficulties  obstacle  of  adapting  ourselves  to  the  totally 
of  Latin.  ^^^  intellectual  surroundings.  Is  not  this 
the  really  difficult  thing;  and  must  not  the  key  to  it 
be  furnished  mainly  by  a  slow  and  minute  study  of  the 
literature  itself?  Until  we  have  by  gradual  steps  worked 
our  way  up  to  the  new  attitude,  may  we  undertake  to 
believe  that  we  can  interpret  Latin  directly  ?  In  other 
words,  can  we  feel  Latin  (the  speech  of  the  Romans) 
as  Latin,  until  we  have  first  surrounded  ourselves  with 
the  intellectual  atmosphere  of  that  ancient  people  ?  This 
is  true  of  any  modern  language,  even  under  favourable 
conditions.  It  takes  in  the  aggregate  a  long  time  — • 
longer  than  can  ever  be  available  in  the  schools,  —  to 
learn  to  think  and  feel  in  French  or  German,  even  when 
one  hears  those  languages  constantly  spoken.  How 
much  more  difficult  must  it  be  to  do  the  same  in  the 


READING  AT  SIGHT  99 

case  of  Latin,  which  we  not  only  do  not  hear  spoken, 
but  practically  not  even  pronounced  to  any  extent  worth 
mentioning,  —  a  language,  too,  whose  entire  idiom  is  so 
much  more  at  variance  with  ours  than  is  either  of  the 
modern  languages  just  mentioned. 

One  other  fact,  too,  remains  to  be  considered.  *  Latin  * 
is  an  elastic  term.  '  French '  and  *  German,'  on  the 
other  hand,  are  definite  and  precise  concepts,  Latin  an  Eias- 
or  relatively  so.  When  we  say  '  French'  or  tic  Term. 
'  German '  we  mean  the  French  or  German  of  to-day,  — 
of  a  single  period.  Latin  may  be  the  Latin  of  Plautus  or 
the  Latin  of  Suetonius,  and  between  the  two  is  an  inter- 
val of  nearly  four  centuries,  containing  writers  of  widely 
different  style,  vocabulary,  syntax,  word-order,  sentence- 
structure,  etc.  The  vastness  of  the  difference  between 
many  of  these  various  writers  we  often  fail  to  appre- 
ciate, simply  because  it  is  so  difficult  for  us  to  acquire 
an  actual  feeling  for  a  language  which  we  do  not  speak. 
But  these  differences  exist,  and  they  augment  enor- 
mously the  difficulties  of  acquiring  a  sense  for  Latin  as 
Latin,  especially  in  the  beginner ;  for  with  a  new  author 
and  a  new  period  we  practically  come  upon  a  new 
language.  Latin  is  not  one  language,  but  practically 
several,  according  to  its  various  periods  and  its  various 
representatives. 

All  these  difficulties  and  embarrassments  must  be 
frankly  faced  when  it  is  seriously  proposed  to  teach 
pupils  in  the  secondary  schools  a  sense  for  Latin  as 
Latin,  and  to  make  the  acquisition  of  that  capacity  the 
prime  end  of  Latin  study  at  that  stage.  It  is  very  easy 
to  recommend  such  a  program,  and  even  to  tell  how 
it  should  be  carried  out.  Thus  Mr.  Hale  tells  us  that 
the  mind  should  hold  in  suspense.  But  the  human 
mind  is  a  peculiar  organism.  It  is  very  obstinate  for 
one  thing.     It  has  laws  of  operation  which  when  they 


lOO  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

become  habitual  it  is  well  nigh  impossible  to  alter.  It  is 
one  thing  to  be  told  we  are  to  hold  in  suspense ;  it  is 
quite  a  different  thing  to  hold  something  in  suspense. 
Similarly  Professor  Greenough  urges  us  to  force  the 
mind  to  make  a  mental  picture,  whether  the  given  order 
is  familiar  or  not.  I  am  free  to  confess  that  so  far  as 
the  secondary  schools  are  concerned  I  believe  both  Mr. 
Hale  and  Mr.  Greenough  to  be  at  fault.  I  cannot  think 
that  the  true  way  to  get  a  feeling  for  Latin  is  by  any  con- 
scious process,  —  least  of  all  by  any  conscious  forcing 
process  as  Mr.  Greenough  would  have  us  believe. 

Hamerton  in  his  Intellectual  Life  has  a  dream  of  a 
Latin  island.  "  Let  us  suppose,"  says  he,  "  that  a  hun- 
Hamerton's  <^^^<^  fathers  could  be  found,  all  resolved  to 
Proposal.  submit  to  some  inconvenience  in  order  that 
their  sons  might  speak  Latin  as  a  living  language.  A 
small  island  might  be  rented  near  the  coast  of  Italy, 
and  in  that  island  Latin  alone  might  be  permitted. 
Just  as  the  successive  governments  of  France  main- 
tain the  establishments  of  Sevres  and  the  Gobelins 
to  keep  the  manufactures  of  porcelain  and  tapestry  up 
to  a  recognised  high  standard  of  excellence,  so  this 
Latin  island  might  be  maintained  to  give  more  vivacity 
to  scholarship.  If  there  were  but  one  little  corner  of 
ground  on  the  wide  earth  where  pure  Latin  was  con- 
stantly spoken,  our  knowledge  of  the  classic  writers 
would  become  far  more  sympathetically  intimate.  After 
thinking  in  the  Latin  island,  we  should  think  in  Latin  as 
we  read,  and  read  without  translating."  Hamerton  him- 
self confesses  that  this  is  a  Utopian  dream,  and  so  I  am 
confident  it  is,  but  not  for  the  reasons  that  he  advances. 
To  his  mind  the  proposed  plan  is  idle,  because  sooner  or 
later  these  isolated  Latinists  would  be  forced  to  return  to 
the  corrupting  influence  of  modern  colleges  and  univer- 
sities.    But  even  on  their  island  I  must  beheve  that  the 


READING  AT  StC^H^f  "     ''  '  ''  \6i 

attempt  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  spoken  Latin 
could  terminate  only  in  ignominious  failure.  Latin,  as 
Hamerton  understands  it  and  as  we  all  must  understand 
it,  was  the  language  of  a  people  who  have  long  passed 
away.  The  Latin  language,  as  we  know  it  in  its  extant 
literature,  records  the  mental  attitude,  intellectual  attain- 
ments, sentiments,  and  aspirations  of  that  people.  For 
these  it  was  an  adequate  expression.  For  the  immensely 
altered  conditions  of  our  modern  life,  different  in  almost 
every  conceivable  detail  from  that  of  the  Romans,  it  can 
be  no  adequate  vehicle.  Hamerton's  young  islanders, 
therefore,  could  not  resuscitate  the  language  of  the 
Romans,  because  they  would  have  none  of  the  ideas  that 
were  essentially  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people. 
The  most  they  could  do  would  be  to  create  a  new  idiom, 
—  Latin  mayhap  in  outward  form  and  structure,  but  in 
content  as  modern  as  our  daily  newspapers.  Such  an 
experiment  could  bring  one  no  nearer  the  heart  of 
ancient  life  nor  do  one  whit  to  lessen  the  strangeness  of 
the  ancient  civilization,  the  thing  which  really  makes 
Latin  difficult.  To  meet  this  difficulty  we  want  not 
more  method,  but  simply  more  knowledge. 

I  shall  also  venture  to  urge  another  point  in  this  con- 
nection, and   one  which   seems   to   me  of  fundamental 

importance.     It  is  this:  unless  I  am  gravely  „,  ,.     ^^^ 
.       ,  ,  .  .  ,        ,.^        .      Relation  of  the 

mistaken,  the  proposition  to  make  direct  in- CoUege  to  the 

terpretation  the  central  feature  of  Latin  instruc-  ^^^<^^- 
tion  in  the  secondary  school  emanated  originally  from  the 
college  alone,  and  the  pressure  that  has  since  been  exerted 
to  secure  its  recognition  in  programs  of  instruction  has 
come  from  the  same  source.  Now  I  make  bold  to  raise 
the  question  whether  college  teachers  can  possibly  under- 
stand the  organization  and  problems  of  the  secondary 
schools  sufficiently  well  to  warrant  them  in  urging  any , 
such  method  of  imparting  instruction  upon  the  schools. 


'lb2'  '   '     '     "  TliE  BEGINNING   WORK 

Ought  not  any  such  detailed  scheme  of  teaching,  if  it  is 
to  give  promise  of  success,  to  originate  primarily  in  the 
schools  themselves?  Ought  it  not  to  be  the  outcome  of 
the  observation  and  experience  of  the  teachers  who  are 
in  constant  touch  with  secondary  pupils,  who  know 
exactly  their  strength  and  weakness,  their  capacity  and 
their  limitations?  Is  there  warrant  for  believing  that  any 
definite  method  of  imparting  knowledge,  elaborated  out- 
side the  schools  by  men  of  however  exalted  scholastic 
position,  can  be  intelligently  adopted  and  applied  by  the 
teachers?  I  do  not  believe  there  is.  Any  method 
really  feasible  and  fruitful  is  sure  to  be  discovered  and 
applied  by  the  secondary  teacher  long  before  it  is  for- 
mulated outside.  I  have  therefore  regretted  not  a  little 
of  late  to  note  the  increasing  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  colleges  to  assume  a  responsibility  for  the  interior 
economy  of  the  schools,  and  not  merely  to  prescribe  the 
subject  matter,  but  to  urge  definite  ways  of  giving  in- 
struction. Any  such  attitude,  I  beheve,  does  injustice 
to  the  schools.  As  one  who  has  laboured  in  that  depart- 
ment of  education  for  some  length  of  time,  and  knows 
something  of  the  problems  with  which  the  secondary 
teacher  is  confronted,  I  earnestly  deprecate  the  assump- 
tion that  the  secondary  teachers  are  not  the  most  com- 
petent agents  to  solve  their  own  problems.  Certainly  if 
they  do  not  possess  the  intelligence  and  patience  to  do 
so,  I  am  at  a  loss  to  see  how  they  can  be  thought  capa- 
ble of  applying  a  solution  devised  by  others. 

The  foregoing  considerations  were  formally  presented 
to  a  gathering  of  representative  teachers  a  few  years 
ago.  In  the  discussion  which  followed,  an  eminent  edu- 
cator nominally  took  issue  with  my  conclusions.  As 
his  remarks  showed,  however,  his  attitude  on  the  main 
point  under  discussion  was  practically  identical  with  my 
own.     In  fact  he  dealt  the  method  I  had  myself  been 


TRANSLATION  AT  SIGHT  I03 

condemning  some  additional  blows,  calling  attention 
among  other  things  to  the  undue  stress  laid  upon  syn- 
tax to  the  practical  exclusion  of  everything  else.  What 
this  educator  understood  by  '  reading  at  sight '  was  an 
exercise  wherein  the  pupils  under  the  teacher's  guid- 
ance read  a  passage  of  Latin  hitherto  unseen.  This  is 
not  reading  at  sight  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  ardently 
championed  by  some,  and  in  which  I  had  endeavoured 
to  discuss  it.  An  exercise  in  which  the  pupils  are 
taught  by  a  competent  guide  the  proper  mode  of  at- 
tacking a  new  passage  of  Latin  and  getting  its  fullest 
and  most  accurate  meaning,  is  one  for  which  I  have  only 
commendation.  Within  Hmits  it  is  most  useful.  But 
it  should  be  obvious  that  it  has  not  in  the  least  been 
the  subject  of  consideration  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

V.  Translation  at  Sight. 

'Translation  at  sight'  has  already  been  defined  above, 

p.  85.      It  means  precisely  what  the  words  naturally 

suggest,  namely,  the  translation  of  a  passae^e 

r  T     J       X.'   i\\.  Ml,  T    Definition. 

01  Latm  which  the  pupil  has  never  seen.     I 

have  already,  at  the  close  of  the  previous  section,  indi- 
cated what  all  will  undoubtedly  recognise  as  a  legitimate 
employment  of  translation  at  sight  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction. Where  time  offers  —  and  it  can  usually  be 
wisely  taken  —  for  such  an  exercise,  it  is  likely  to  prove 
an  efficient  means  of  guidance  and  of  imparting  knowl- 
edge. It  is  nothing  new,  however,  and  has  probably 
been  recognised  as  an  effective  instrument  from  time 
immemorial.  More  serious  is  the  question  how  far 
'  translation  at  sight '  should  be  made  the  As  the  Basis 
basis  of  college  admission  tests.  Were  this  ^^^^^^ion 
question  one  which  affected  the  colleges  Tests, 
alone,  or  the  student  after  leaving  the  secondary  school, 


> 


104  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

it  would  be  an  impertinence  to  discuss  it  here ;  but  as 
it  has  vital  bearings  upon  the  teaching  of  Latin  in  the 
schools,  the  relevancy  of  considering  these  bearings 
must  be  apparent. 

Some  persons  advocate  making  such  translation  (com- 
»^"         bined  with  the  writing  of  Latin)  the  sole  test  of  the 
^  candidate's  knowledge,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  exami- 

"N  nation  upon  prescribed  work.     Against  an  examination 

i^\\  *  upon  prescribed  authors,  it  is  urged  that  such  a  test  is 
J\'  ^  quantitative,  whereas  an  examination  on  a  passage  set 
for  translation  at  sight  is  qualitative.  Such  a  compari- 
son, however,  seems  to  me  exceedingly  unfair.  To 
characterize  an  examination  upon  prescribed  work  as 
essentially  quantitative  implies  that  its  primary  object  is 
to  discover  how  much  has  been  read,  combined  with  the 
policy  of  accepting  or  rejecting  the  candidate  according 
as  the  amount  is  found  to  be  great  or  small.  No  one 
seriously  supposes  any  such  thing  for  a  moment.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  an  examination  upon  prescribed  work  is, 
and  always  has  been,  primarily  a  qualitative  test.  The 
essential  difference  between  such  an  examination  and 
an  examination  by  translation  at  sight  is  not  that  one  is 
qualitative  and  the  other  quantitative,  but  that,  both 
being  qualitative,  the  range  of  selection  is  somewhat 
greater  in  the  one  case  than  in  the  other.  My  own 
objections  against  an  exclusive  sight  test  are  based  quite 
as  much  on  the  practical  effects  of  the  system,  as  upon 
any  theoretical  grounds.  Practically  I  believe  the  ten- 
dency of  such  a  test  is  to  tempt  many  teachers  to 
employ  the  time  of  their  classes  on  the  rapid  reading  of 
large  amounts  with  consequent  failure  on  the  part  of 
their  pupils  to  acquire  that  precise  knowledge  of  the 
grammar  and  that  fine  feeling  for  the  language  which 
are  so  indispensable  to  true  scholarship.  This  I  believe, 
because  I  have  thought  I  discovered  the  effects  of  this 


TRANSLATION  AT  SIGHT  IO5 

practice  in  the  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  classical 
preparatory  training  which  is  now  so  generally  deplored. 
In  the  secondary  study  of  Latin,  I  am  convinced  that 
our  greatest  danger  at  present  is  that  of  slovenly,  super- 
ficial work.  In  the  eager  quest  of  the  magic  power  to 
translate  at  sight,  it  is  all  too  easy  to  lose  sight  of  the 
most  indispensable  conditions  of  ever  attaining  profi- 
ciency in  the  language,  —  namely,  a  painfully  thorough 
grammatical  discipline.  At  no  period  in  a  four  years' 
course  should  such  discipline  be  relaxed.  It  is  with 
learning  to  read  a  classical  language,  as  it  is  with 
learning  to  play  a  musical  instrument.  The  technique 
of  the  art  cannot  be  neglected,  and  he  who  is  the  most 
perfect  master  of  technique  will  be  surest  of  making  a 
player  in  the  end,  —  at  least  he  will  never  make  a  player 
without  it.  So  in  reading  Latin  the  process  is  not  one 
of  divination,  but  of  sober  inference  from  positive  knowl- 
edge of  the  meanings  of  words,  the  force  of  inflections, 
word-order,  and  the  subtleties  of  syntax;  and  no  one 
who  is  not  master  of  these  can  any  more  translate  at 
sight,  than  he  can  read  music  at  sight  without  having 
previously  mastered  the  technique  of  the  particular 
instrument  on  which  he  wishes  to  perform. 

Another  practical  objection  to  the  plan  of  an  exclusive 
sight  test  is  the  great  difficulty  in  setting  passages  which 
are  just  and  fair.  I  base  this  conclusion  partly  on  a 
comparison  of  passages  actually  given  at  different  insti- 
tutions, and  partly  on  my  experience  as  a  secondary 
teacher  and  a  college  professor.  It  is  no  exaggeration 
to  say  that  passages  are  often  set  which,  in  view  of  their 
inherent  difficulty  and  the  absence  of  the  context,  are 
altogether  beyond  the  power  of  any  ordinary  pupil ;  in 
fact  it  is  no  secret  that  the  secondary  teacher  is  some- 
times seriously  puzzled  to  interpret  the  passage  set  for 
his  own  pupils. 


I06  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

If  a  sight  test  is  to  be  made  the  basis  —  wholly  or ' 
partially  —  of  a  college  entrance  examination,  I  should 
recommend  as  the  best  possible  preparation  for  such 
a  test  the  most  careful  and  thorough  preparation  of 
(the  traditional  prescribed  authors,  Caesar  (or  Nepos), 
'icero,  and  Virgil. 

The  pupil  who  has  faithfully  and  accurately  studied 
his  four  books  of  the  Gallic  War,  his  seven  speeches  of 
Cicero,  and  his  six  or  eight  books  of  the  ^^neid,  need 
have  no  fear  of  any  passage  set  him  for  translation  at 
sight  that  ought  to  be  put  before  a  candidate  for  ad- 
mission to  college.  It  is  because  so  many  teachers 
fail  to  see  this,  and  because  the  colleges  so  often  set 
extremely  difficult  passages,  that  new  "  methods  "  are 
becoming  prevalent  and  vitiating  the  quality  of  pre- 
paratory Latin  teaching. 

With  a  definite  amount  of  time  at  our  disposal  only 
two  possibilities  present  themselves  to  me :  Either  the 
traditional  prescribed  authors  and  honest  work,  or  an 
increase  of  the  amount  read  and  a  consequent  lowering 
of  quality.  I  leave  it  to  the  candid  judgment  of  all 
teachers,  which  course  is  likely  to  prove  the  better 
either  for  the  student  who  is  to  end  his  Latin  study  in 
the  secondary  school  or  for  the  prospective  collegian. 

VI.   What  Latin  Reading  should  follow  the  Elementary  Work  ? 

When  the  elements  of  Latin  have  been  once  mastered 
the  question  arises.  What  is  to  be  done  next?  It  was 
long  common  to  begin  at  once  the  reading  of  Caesar; 
and  probably  that  custom  is  still  somewhat  prevalent. 
Yet  the  difficulties  of  Caesar  or  even  of  the  alternative 
Nepos  are  undeniable,  and  have  led  teachers  more 
and  more  to  prefer  the  use  of  some  simple  Latin  to 
serve  as  a  transition  from  the  simple  sentences  used  in 


e- 


EASV  READING  10/ 

connection  with  the  elementary  work  to  the  first  regular 
continuous  prose  author.     I   am  myself  de-  Reading 
cidedly  of  the  opinion  that  some  such  simple  I'^^oposed. 
Latin  should  precede  either  Caesar  or  Nepos.     Several 
things  offer  themselves  for  this  purpose : 

a.  Viri  Romae. 

b.  Roman  History  {e.g.  Jacobs's  extracts). 

c.  Eutropius. 

d.  Some  simplification  of  a  part  of  Caesar.     cjU^  ^ 
Let  us  consider  these  in  turn. 
Viri  Romae  is  of  more  value  than  its  barbarous  Latin    ^-^^^^^^-^-^   -^ 

title  might  suggest.     It  was  prepared  a  century  and  a  ^^^^^  "^<n/u^ 

half  ago  by  an  enthusiastic  French  teacher,    „._,  „  ** — '^^--^&/ 

°         ^  '    Viri  Romae.  '  '^ — \St,.^ 

Lhomond,  —  a    man   whose   whole    life    was  ^  ^/ 

dedicated  to  the  service  of  secondary  education.  As^w'g^'  ^ 
the  title  of  the  work  suggests,  it  is  a  history  arranged  '''^^^^  ^-^^ 
biographically.  It  contains  some  thirty  lives  of  Roman 
worthies  from  Romulus  to  Augustus.  In  composition 
the  work  is  a  cento,  i.  e.  the  different  sentences  of  which 
each  life  is  made  up  are  drawn  from  various  Latin 
writers.  Often  they  are  abbreviated  or  otherwise  sim- 
plified for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  narrative  which 
shall  avoid  the  difficulties  that  characterize  almost  all 
continuous  prose.  Lhomond  evidently  had  the  teacher's 
instinct;  he  knew  the  advantages  of  the  biographical 
treatment,  with  its  keen  appeal  to  the  youthful  mind ; 
he  was  quick,  too,  to  see  and  utilize  those  historical  and 
biographical  features  which  were  striking  and  essential, 
and  to  bring  these  out  in  strong  relief  His  little  work 
is  therefore  extremely  interesting  to  the  average  pupil 
of  the  class  for  which  it  is  intended.  For  years  it  has 
been  widely  used  abroad,  and  recently  it  has  met  with 
much  favour  in  this  country. 

Jacobs's  extracts  from   Roman  (and   Greek)  history 
have   also  done   excellent  service  both   abroad  and  in 


I08  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

this  country.  They  were  originally  prepared  by  Jacobs, 
an  eminent  German  educator  of  the  early  part  of  this 
jacobs's  century,  for  his  Latin  Reader.  The  arrange- 
Extracts.  ment  is  historical,  as  opposed  to  biographi- 
cal, but  the  material  is  put  together  on  much  the  same 
plan  as  that  in  Lhomond's  book.  It  is,  however,  drawn 
from  fewer  sources  (chiefly  from  Justin  and  Eutropius), 
and  the  changes  from  the  original  have  been  fewer  than 
in  Viri  Romae.  Though  brief,  and  sketchy,  it  is  not 
devoid  of  interest,  and  impresses  upon  the  pupil  who 
reads  it  a  number  of  the  essential  happenings  which 
constitute  the  basis  of  Roman  history.  Few  freshmen, 
I  must  confess,  bring  to  college  as  much  knowledge  of 
Roman  history  as  is  contained  in  these  brief  selections 
of  Jacobs,  meagre  as  they  are.  A  possible  advantage 
possessed  by  this  work  as  compared  with  Viri  Romae 
is  the  great  simplicity  of  the  Latin,  particularly  in  the 
earlier  portion  of  the  selections.  ^ 

Eutropius  ^  has  never  been  much  used  in  this  country  >.  ^  \ 
or  elsewhere,  so  far  as  I  know,  and  the  reception  ac-  >  ^  ? 
corded  to  recently  published  editions  of  the<^*(V.| 
\    x^  *    work   fails   to    encourage   the   belief  that   it, 

J"^^  ^^  will  ever  be  popular.  The  work  lacks  hfe  and,  above 
[^  ^^  all,  it  lacks  perspective ;  it  is  an  exceedingly  dry  annal- 
"  ^*  x-  istic  account  of  events  important  and  unimportant.  It 
V,  ^^  can  hardly  be  expected  to  inspire  interest,  especially  in 
(l    ^  young  pupils. 

^^  The  last  type  of  simple  reading  to  be  considered  con- 

sists of  some  simplification  of  a  part  of  Caesar.  An  ad- 
Cffisar  vantage    of  such   matter    is    that  the    pupil 

Simplified.  becomes  familar  with  Caesar's  vocabulary,  his 
subject  matter,  and  his  general  style,  without  encounter- 
ing the  severer  obstacles  of  his  continuous  narrative. 

1  See  Redway,  J.  W.,  The  Breviarmm  of  Eutropius,  in  The  Educa- 
tional Review,  vol.  xii.  (Dec.  1896),  p.  509  £f. 


EASV  READING  I09 

Still  it  is  difficult,  I  think,  to  secure  any  simplification  of 
Caesar  without  a  decided  diminution  of  such  interest 
(perhaps  not  very  great  at  best)  as  is  possessed  by  the 
original. 

With  the  exception  of  the  last,  all  the  foregoing 
works  suffer  from  one  defect.  The  Latin  is  much  of  it 
far  from  classical.  Eutropius  belongs  to  the  Defects  ^f 
fourth  century  of  our  era;  Justin  to  the  Most  of 
second.  Similarly  many  of  the  other  sources  ^^^* 
embodied  in  Viri  Romae,  and  in  Jacobs's  Extracts  from 
Roman  History  are  late,  and  exhibit  striking  variations 
from  the  norm  of  classical  usage.  This  is  a  serious  fault. 
The  pupil  learns  from  his  elementary  book  or  his  gram- 
mar that  qiiamqtiam  is  construed  with  the  indicative, 
but  is  at  once  introduced  to  Latin  in  which  he  finds  this 
particle  used  with  the  subjunctive ;  he  learns  that  ut  or 
postquam  referring  to  a  single  past  act  takes  the  perfect 
indicative;  he  finds  them  used  with  the  pluperfect;  he 
learns  that  in  indirect  discourse  verbs  of  *  promising,'  for 
example,  are  followed  by  the  future  infinitive  with  sub- 
ject accusative,  but  he  meets  expressions  like  promisit 
dare,  obviously  employed  in  the  sense  *  he  promised 
that  he  would  give.'  These  are  but  illustrations  of  the 
very  numerous  violations  of  the  most  ordinary  canons  of 
standard  usage  as  laid  down  in  all  our  grammars.  If 
Viri  Romae,  Jacobs's  Extracts,  or  Eutropius  are  to  be 
used  in  our  schools,  they  certainly  ought  to  be  adapted, 
as  can  easily  be  done,  to  recognised  classical  standards. 
Otherwise  the  task  of  inculcating  any  accurate  grammat- 
ical knowledge  must  be  immensely  increased. 

The  foregoing  enumeration  of  books  containing  sim- 
ple reading  makes  no  pretence  at  completeness.  There 
are  numerous  other  books.  Many  suffer  from  the  same 
objectionable  features  of  unclassical  Latin ;  others  in- 
troduce modern  or  mediaeval  subject  matter  in  a  Latin 


no  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

dress.  This  last  procedure  seems  a  serious  mistake.  To 
the  extent  that  we  withdraw  the  student  of  Latin  from 
the  thoughts  and  ideas  of  ancient  Rome,  we  are  missing 
one  important  element  of  culture  which  ought  to  come 
from  the  study  of  Latin,  namely,  better  understanding 
of  the  present  through  an  understanding  of  the  past. 
This  end  is  certainly  not  reached  by  stories  from  the 
Arabian  Nights  or  English  history  put  in  Latin  form 
by  modern  scholars. 


CHAPTER  III 

WHAT   AUTHORS  ARE    TO  BE    READ  IN  THE   SECONDARY 
SCHOOL   AND   IN   WHAT    SEQUENCE? 

REFERENCES. 

Wagler,  F.  A.,  Casar  als  Schulbuch,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  das  Gym- 
NASIALWESEN,  1857,  pp.  481-503.  This  article  has  been  excellently  trans- 
lated by  F.  H.  Howard  in  The  School  Review,  1897,  pp.  561-587. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation,    Latin.     1893. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  American  Philological 
Association  on  Courses  in  Latin  and  Greek  for  Secondary  Schools. 
1899. 

I.    What  Author  should  be  read  first  ? 

There  has  been  much  discussion  in  recent  years  as 
to  what  regular  prose  author  should  be  read  first.  For 
years  Caesar's  Gallic  War  had  been  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  this  practice  had  become  so  universal  as  to  be 
regarded  almost  as  a  permanent  and  necessary  feature 
of  our  educational  economy.  In  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ten  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
published  in  1893,  the  suggestion  was  formally  made 
that  Nepos  be  substituted  for  Caesar  as  the  Kepos  vs. 
first  prose  author  to  be  read  in  our  secondary  Caesar, 
schools.  This  suggestion  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  was 
but  the  adoption  of  a  recommendation  of  the  Latin  Con- 
ference appointed  by  the  Committee  in  December,  1892. 
The  Conference  devoted  two  days  of  careful  discussion 
to  the  consideration  of  several  problems  of  secondary 
instruction  in  Latin,  and  was  practically  unanimous  in 


112  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

its  recommendation  that  Nepos  be  made  optional  with 
Caesar.  As  the  question  of  choice  is  of  some  impor- 
tance, it  seems  worth  while  to  discuss  the  relative  merits 
of  these  two  authors  with  reference  to  their  adaptation  to 
the  needs  of  secondary  instruction.  I  cannot  do  better 
perhaps  than  to  enumerate  the  considerations  which 
weighed  with  me  (and  I  think  with  others)  as  a  member  of 
the  Latin  Conference  which  reported  to  the  Committee  of 
Ten,  and  then  to  add  the  reasons  which  have  tended  sub- 
quently  to  modify  the  position  then  taken.  While  not 
explicitly  expressing  disapproval  of  Csesar  as  the  first 
author  read,  yet  the  recommendation  of  the  Conference 
was  intended  to  indicate  a  certain  distrust  of  th6  fit- 
ness of  Caesar  to  retain  the  place  it  had  held  so  long. 
In  recommending  Nepos,  though  only  as  a  permis- 
sible alternative,  the  Conference  meant  to  suggest  the 
superior  fitness  of  that  author  for  the  special  stage 
of  Latin  involved. 

Objections  to  Against  Caesar  (and  by  Caesar  is  meant  his 
casar.  Gallic  War)  it  is  urged  : 

a.  Ccesar  is  undeniably  difficult.  Indirect  Discourse 
abounds,  particularly  in  the  first  book,  which  from  nat- 
ural inertia  will  always  be  the  book  generally 
first  read,  despite  the  frequent  recommenda- 
tions of  educators  to  begin  with  the  second,  third,  or 
fourth  book.  But  even  apart  from  the  indirect  discourse 
and  apart  from  the  first  book,  Caesar  cannot  be  called 
easy  reading,  especially  for  the  beginner. 

b.  Ccesar  is  not  interesting.      The  writer   does   not 
impress  us  as  gifted  with  imagination,  historic  or  other. 

Lack  of        He  is  exceedingly  dry.     There  is  little  to  ex- 
interest.       cj|-g  ^j^g    enthusiasm.     The   narrative,  more- 
over, is  monotonous.     We  have  practically  an  unbroken 
i-chronicle  of   marches   and  victories,   in  which  the   tri- 
umph of  trained  Romans  over  undisciplined  and  poorly 


C^SAR   OR  NEPOSf  II3 

equipped  Gauls  and  Germans  is  nothing  surprising. 
Patches  of  interest  appear  here  and  there,  to  be  sure, 
as  where  Caesar  gives  us  descriptions  of  the  customs  of 
the  Gauls,  Britons,  or  Germans.  These  are  brief,  how- 
ever, —  hardly  more  than  oases  in  the  surrounding 
desert  of  military  details ;  —  some  of  them,  moreover, 
are  found  in  portions  of  Caesar  not  usually  read. 

c.  The  bearing  of  Ccesars  narrative  is  not  obvious. 
The  pupil  cannot  see  the  point,  —  the  drift  of  it  all. 
It  is  apparent,  of  course,  that  Caesar  is  con-  obscure 
quering  a  lot  of  turbulent  Gauls  and  Germans.  Bearings. 
But  what  it  all  signifies,  must  necessarily  be  very  obscure 
to  the  average  pupil ;  at  least  it  does  not  appear  in  the 
narrative  itself.  With  the  exception  of  the  few  chapters 
already  referred  to  on  the  customs  of  the  Gauls,  Ger- 
mans, and  Britons,  all  of  Caesar's  commentaries  on  the 
Gallic  War  might  easily  be  summed  up  in  a  few  brief 
lines,  to  the  effect  that  for  seven  years  he  waged  unceas- 
ing war  against  the  Gallic  and  German  tribes,  and 
finally  subdued  them  all.  This  is  practically  the  sub- 
stance of  the  historical  knowledge  acquired  by  the  stu- 
dent in  reading  Caesar.  Without  doubt  Caesar's  Gallic 
campaigns  were  profoundly  significant.  They  had  a 
motive,  —  perhaps  a  double  motive.  On  the  one  hand 
Caesar  was  strengthening  himself  by  his  military  success 
for  future  schemes  of  ambition.  By  winning  prestige 
and  power  in  Gaul,  he  aimed  to  be  able  to  return  to 
Rome  at  the  critical  juncture  and  make  himself  master 
of  the  situation,  as  he  actually  did.  On  the  other  hand 
he  may  have  been  exercising  that  far-sighted  states- 
manship, with  which  Mommsen  credits  him,  in  prepar- 
ing for  the  organization  of  the  West  as  a  part  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  But  though  all  this  is  true,  yet  it  does 
not  appear  in  Caesar's  Commentaries.  The  Commenta- 
ries themselves,  in  all  their  weary  detail  of  battle,  siege. 


114  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

and  march,  never  suggest  their  own  connection  with 
contemporary  or  future  history.  To  all  intents  and 
purposes  they  stand  outside  of  the  events  of  their  own 
day.  They  do  not  contain  facts  the  knowledge  of  which 
is  of  value  to  the  average  pupil  or  the  average  edu- 
cated person  of  mature  years.  Some  have  compared 
the  similar  choice  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis  as  the  first 
Greek  usually  read.  But  it  must  be  admitted  in  favour 
of  the  Anabasis  that,  while  it  has  for  the  pupil  no  visible 
connection  with  Greek  history  and  no  visible  bearings 
upon  it,  it  is  at  least  neither  difficult  for  the  beginner 
nor  dull.  Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  regarded  by 
many  as  unique  in  its  combination  of  difficulty,  its  dul- 
ness,  and  its  dearth  of  valuable  information.  If  anything 
of  Caesar's  were  to  be  read,  it  is  often  urged  that  it 
The  Civil  Ought  rather  to  be  his  Commentaries  on  the 
^^'  Civil    War  than  those  on  the   Gallic  War. 

The  account  of  the  Civil  War  at  least  contains  valuable 
information  of  an  important  epoch  in  Roman  history. 
We  see  the  very  death-struggle  of  the  old  order  of 
things,  —  the  Republic  passing  away  to  make  room  for 
the  Empire.  We  see  Caesar  leave  his  Gallic  province 
and  become  an  active  maker  of  Roman  history  at  its 
most  critical  era.  We  follow  him  from  the  beginning 
of  his  strife  with  the  Senate  and  Pompey  through  all 
the  stirring  events  of  the  next  three  years  (49-46),  at 
Pharsalus,  in  the  East,  in  Egypt,  in  Numidia,  until  he 
finally  comes  back  to  Rome  to  lay  the  foundations  of 
the  imperial  organization.  There  is  no  doubt  here  as  to 
the  bearings  of  the  narrative.  The  most  ordinary  pupil 
cannot  fail  to  apprehend  its  import.  Nor  is  it  dull.  It 
may,  however,  possibly  suffisr  from  one  defect:  it  is 
difficult,  —  too  difficult  perhaps  for  the  average  pupil 
who  is  approaching  his  first  Latin  author. 

In  defence  of  Caesar  the  chief  point  to  be  urged  is 


CjESAR   or  NEPOSf  115 

the  purity  of  his  diction  and  the  accuracy  of  his  style. 
That  he  is  a  correct  writer,  no  one  can  deny.  He 
thought,  as  he  acted,  with  a  directness  and  in  Defence 
precision  which  were  admirable,  and  he  ex-  ®*  ^^xtsax. 
pressed  himself  in  writing  with  equal  directness  and 
precision.  At  the  same  time  nothing  could  be  more 
grotesque  to  the  minds  of  most  than  to  attribute  a 
literary  character  or  quality  to  Caesar.  He  simply  gives 
us  a  plain  and  colourless  statement  of  facts,  which  makes 
hardly  any  nearer  approach  to  literary  charm  than  does 
a  clear  statement  of  a  proposition  in  geometry.  Such 
a  statement  may  be  clear  and  precise  and  direct,  —  yet 
its  literary  quality  would  be  grudgingly  conceded. 

We  pass  to   the  considerations  which  are 
urged  in  favour  of  Cornelius  Nepos. 

a.  Nepos' s  Latinity  is  good.  This  is  disputed  by 
some,  and  I  have  even  heard  it  charged  that  Nepos 
did  not  know  how  to  write  Latin.  That  he 
was  an  elegant  writer,  possessed  of  command- 
ing stylistic  powers,  no  one  will  maintain,  but  that  he 
was  a  correct  writer  and  represents  in  the  main  with 
great  fidelity  the  standard  classical  usage  of  the  best 
period  cannot  be  gainsaid.  To  verify  the  impressions 
of  my  own  reading,  I  have  recently  re-examined  Bern- 
hard  Lupus's  book  of  some  two  hundred  pages,  Der 
SprachgebraitcJi  des  Cornelius  NepoSy  Berlin,  1876.  This 
work  is  a  detailed  syntactical  study  of  Nepos,  and 
supports  abundantly  the  assertion  made  above  regard- 
ing the  correctness  of  Nepos's  style.  Nepos,  to  be 
sure,  omits  the  auxiliary  esse  with  the  future  active  and 
perfect  passive  infinitives,  but  this  is  the  prevailing 
usage  with  many  excellent  writers.  He  also  uses  dubito 
with  the  infinitive,  where  Cicero  and  Caesar  preferred 
to  use  a  ^////z-clause ;  but  while,  Cicero  himself  never 
uses  the  infinitive  with  dubito  in  this  sense,  several  of 


Il6  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

his  correspondents  employ  it,  the  accomplished  Asinius 
Pollio,  Trebonius,  and  Cicero's  own  son  Marcus.  Duifiy 
*  while/  in  standard  prose  usually  is  construed  with 
the  historical  present.  Nepos  once  uses  it  with  the 
perfect;  but  Cicero  also  does  this.  The  perfect  sub- 
junctive (for  imperfect)  in  result  clauses  is  exceedingly 
frequent  in  Nepos,  —  so  frequent  as  to  be  a  striking 
feature  of  his  style.  Yet  the  usage  is  thoroughly  good. 
Csesar  and  Cicero  use  it,  though  rarely.  The  only  two 
striking  exceptions  to  standard  usage  that  I  have  noted 
in  Nepos  are  fimgor  with  the  accusative  and  qiiamvis 
with  the  indicative.  Yet  Cicero  also  is  credited  with 
one  instance  of  the  latter  construction,  and  Sallust  once 
uses  vescor  with  the  accusative.  On  the  whole  Nepos 
writes  like  his  contemporaries,  barring  the  fact  that  he 
does  not  exhibit  their  stylistic  gifts.  He  shows  none 
of  the  symptoms  of  the  so-called  "  decline."  So  far  as 
his  diction  is  concerned,  he  is  an  eminently  fit  author 
to  put  into  the   hands  of  young  pupils. 

b.  Nepois  lives  are  interesting.     Though  they  are  the 
lives  of  Greeks,  they  are  the  lives  of  famous  Greeks, 

men  who  stand  out  as  great  exemplars  in 
human  history,  whose  achievements  and 
whose  characters  have  always  evoked  admiration.  Were 
they  the  lives  of  Romans,  they  would  undoubtedly  be 
better  adapted  to  pupils  of  Latin,  yet  Nepos's  point  of 
view  and  his  mode  of  treatment  are  so  thoroughly 
Roman  that  one  catches  much  of  the  Roman  spirit  in 
reading  and  studying  them. 

c.  They  are  composed  in  short  instalments.     This  is 
exclusively  a  psychological  advantage,  perhaps,  but  it 

is  not  without  importance.     Where  the  pupil 
sees  the  end,  he  receives  a  stimulus  to  coun- 
teract the  fatigue  of  study.     When  the  end  of  what  he 
is  reading  lies  but  two  or  three  pages  ahead,  he  is  eager 


CjEsar  or  jvEPosf  117 

to  press  on  and  gain  the  goal.  When  he  reaches  this, 
he  enjoys  the  satisfaction  of  having  accomphshed  one 
whole  thing  and  of  having  it  behind  him.  Very  differ- 
ent are  his  feelings  when  he  begins  one  of  the  long  books 
of  Caesar,  where  he  must  read  for  weeks  before  he  can 
really  get  the  setting  to  enable  him  fully  to  understand 
what  he  reads,  and  where  the  remoteness  of  the  end 
of  the  book  tends  to  produce  a  certain  discouragement 
and  despair  of  ever  reaching  it. 

d.    The  method  of  treatment  by  biography  is  attractive. 
The  hero-worshipping  instinct  of  the  young  pupil  takes 
delight  in  the  recital  of  the  deeds  of  noble    BiograpWcai 
men,  a  point  already  touched  upon  above  in    Treatment, 
connection  with  Viri  Romce. 

The  foregoing,  I  believe,  were  the  main  considerations 
which  prompted  the  recommendation  of  the  Latin  Con- 
ference in  1892  which  was  later  embodied  in  the  Report 
of  the  Committee  of  Ten  in  1893.  Subsequent  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  most  teachers  clingy  te-    „ 

0  Reasons  why 

naciously  to  Caesar.  Some  doubtless  do  so  Caesar  is  stm 
from  sheer  inertia,  but  I  am  convinced  that  ^  ^"^ 
there  are  many  who  are  thoughtful  and  deliberate  in 
their  choice.  I  have  been  surprised  to  find  how  many 
pupils  find  Caesar  interesting,  not  merely  irotDuUto 
more  interesting  than  Nepos,  but  possessed  of  "^• 
a  positive  human  interest  per  se.  Where  samples  of 
both  Caesar  and  Nepos  have  been  read  by  a  class,  I 
have  been  told  the  pupils  often  prefer  Caesar.  Possibly 
the  greater  energy  of  action  displayed  in  Caesar's  Com- 
mentaries may  explain  this  attitude  on  the  part  of  those 
pupils  who  manifest  it.  Boys  in  particular  take  an  in- 
terest in  accounts  of  achievement.  Nepos  is  not  alto- 
gether lacking  in  this  feature,  but  many  of  his  lives  are 
prevailingly  devoted  to  an  analysis  of  character ;  while 
with  Caesar  we  have  practically  a   continuous  account 


Il8  AUTHORS  TO  BE  READ 

of  skilful  triumph  over  difficulties.     Upon  most  mature 

minds  not  of  the   Miles  Standish  type,  this  narrative 

soon  palls ;  but  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  to  the  minds 

of  many  young  pupils  it  has  a  positive  attractiveness. 

One  other  reason  in  favour  of  Caesar  of  a  somewhat 

subtler  nature  may  not  be  without  its  weight,  and  may 

have  acted  subconsciously  perhaps  in  determ- 

Greater  Con-    ining  the  adherence  of  many  teachers  to  the 

creteness  in  traditional  Gallic  War.  I  refer  to  the  voca- 
Vocabulary. 

bulary  of  Caesar.     A  very  careful  comparison 

of  the  vocabularies  of  Caesar  and  Nepos  undertaken  in 
connection  with  the  preparation  of  my  Foundations  of 
Latin  revealed  to  me  the  much  greater  concreteness  of 
Caesar's  diction.  This  is  largely  a  natural  and  necessary 
adjunct  of  Caesar's  subject  matter.  He  deals  mainly  with 
facts ;  Nepos  indulges  much  more  in  character  analysis, 
and,  while  this  is  never  deep  or  subtle,  it  necessitates 
the  employment  of  words  in  transferred,  figurative,  ab- 
stract senses.  This  fundamental  difference  is  of  vital 
importance  for  the  beginner.  He  should,  if  possible, 
first  become  acquainted  with  concrete  ideas  and  with 
the  literal  meanings  of  words,  particularly  in  the  case 
of  words  that  also  possess  figurative  senses.  These 
words  and  these  meanings  make  the  most  direct  ap- 
peal, and  leave  the  most  vivid  impress  on  the  mind. 
An  apprehension  of  the  Hteral  meaning  affords,  too, 
the  best  guide  to  all  figurative,  transferred  meanings 
which  have  later  developed  from  it.  These  consider- 
^^^  ations  may  perhaps  explain  the  fact  often 
more  Notice-  noted  by  teachers  that  pupils  who  have  read 
*^^®*   _  one  book  of  Caesar  find  the  next  book  much 

easier,  and  the  subsequent  books  easier  still,  while  with 
Nepos  this  increased  facility  is  not  noticed,  the  tenth 
life  being  no  easier  than  the  first  and  the  twentieth 
scarcely  easier  than   the  tenth.     Yet  even  apart  from 


CICERO  AND    VIRGIL  1 19 

the  vocabulary,  it  must  be  manifest  that  the  range  of 
ideas  is  considerably  greater  in  Nepos  than  in  Caesar ; 
this  constitutes  a  permanent  difficulty  in  Nepos,  so  that, 
though  this  author  is  somewhat  easier  at  the  outset,  it 
may  after  all  be  doubted  whether  on  the  whole  he  is 
more  so  than  Caesar. 

On  the  whole,  I  for  one  feel  to-day  that  the  consider- 
ations which  are  so  often  urged  in  favour  of  reading 
Nepos  instead  of  Caesar  are  by  no  means  weighty 
enough  to  warrant  our  giving  the  preference  to  the 
former  author.  The  choice  between  the  two  may 
properly  vary  with  the  temper  and  taste  of  teachers 
and  the  disposition  of  their  pupils.  Yet  reflection  tends 
to  make  me  think  that  for  most  pupils  Caesar  is  the 
better  book  for  the  purpose  we  have  been  considering. 

II.   Should  Cicero  Precede  or  Follow  Virgil  ? 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  Cicero 
should  precede  or  follow  Virgil,  and  practice  varies 
accordingly.  The  question  is  one  of  enough  importance 
to  receive  consideration  here;  two  reasons  suggest 
themselves  for  postponing  Virgil. 

a.  071  the  ground  of  the  language.  The  pupil  who 
has  finished  Caesar  or  Nepos  has  not  yet  a  sufficient 
mastery  of  the  language.  He  probably  knows  Linguistic 
the  forms,  if  he  is  ever  going  to,  but  he  is  not  Reasons, 
yet  posted  as  he  should  be  on  the  syntax. of  the  lan- 
guage, on  its  vocabulary,  on  the  order  of  words,  and 
many  other  points  of  idiomatic  usage.  If  he  enter 
upon  the  study  of  Virgil  in  this  state  of  mind  or  of 
knowledge,  the  chances  are  that  what  little  knowledge  of 
the  language  he  possesses  will  be  pretty  thoroughly  un- 
settled by  reading  poetry.  The  use  of  cases,  the  employ- 
ment of  words,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence  are 


I20  AUTHORS  TO  BE  READ 

all  so  different  from  prose  usage,  that  unless  the  pupil 
has  already  acquired  settled  convictions  on  the  subject 
great  damage  will  be  done.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he 
takes  his  Cicero  immediately  after  Nepos  or  Caesar,  he 
becomes  so  familiar  with  normal  prose  usage  by  the 
time  he  finishes  that  author,  that  not  only  does  the 
poetical  diction  of  Virgil  work  no  injury — it  rather 
helps,  by  virtue  of  the  contrast  it  furnishes  to  the 
idiom  of  prose. 

b.  On  the  groimd  of  the  literature.  Virgil  is  a  poet, 
whose  product  is  one  of  the  choicest  that  Roman  litera- 
literary  ^ure  contains.  Let  the  pupil  wait  until  he  is 
Reasons.  \i^<=x  qualified  to  do  justice  to  the  fine  quality 
of  the  j^iieid.  A  year  makes  a  great  difference,  and 
will  often  decide  whether  the  pupil  shall  read  Virgil 
with  sympathy  and  profit,  or  the  reverse. 

Attention  must  also  be  given  to  another  sequence 
recently  suggested  in  the  reading  of  Cicero  and  Virgil. 
Another  Ar-  I  refer  to  the  course  tentatively  outlined  in 
rangement.  |-]^g  Preluninary  Report  of  the  Committee  of 
Twelve  on  Courses  iji  Latin  and  Greek  for  Secondary 
Schools,  issued  in  1897.  This  committee  consisted  of 
members  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  and 
was  appointed  at  the  request  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  in  July,  1896.  The  suggestion  is 
made  in  this  report  that  in  the  third  year  of  an  ordinary 
four  years'  Latin  course  Cicero's  four  speeches  against 
Catiline  be  xead,  followed  by  Books  i.  and  ii,  of  Virgil's 
^neid  in  the  same  year,  and  that  in  the  fourth  year 
Books  iii.-vi.  of  the  j^neid  be  first  read,  to  be  followed 
by  two  more  orations  of  Cicero.  It  is  difficult,  however, 
to  believe  that  this  suggestion  represents  the  mature 
judgment  of  any  considerable  number  of  educators. 
To  break  the  continuity  of  one's  reading  of  Cicero's 
orations  by  Virgil's  ^neid,  and   to   break  the   conti- 


THE  ECLOGUES  121 

nuity  of  the  j^Eneid  by  the  long  vacation,  seems  an 
unjustifiable  waste  of  energy  without  any  compensating 
advantages. 

III.  Should  Virgil's  Eclogues  be  read  in  the  Secondary  Schools  ? 

The  Latin  Conference  which  met  at  Ann  Arbor  in 
December,  1892,  and  which  reported  to  the  Committee 
of  Ten  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  ad- 
vised against  reading  Virgil's  Eclogues  in  the  secondary 
schools.  This  recommendation  of  the  Conference  was 
adopted  by  the  Committee. 

The  considerations  urged  against  reading  the  Eclogues 
are  probably  familiar.  Stress  is  often  laid  upon  their 
difficulties.  That  they  are  difficult  in  parts,  is  considerations 
undeniable.  They  abound  in  mythological  Urged  against 
allusions,  while  several  of  them  involve  alle-  ^®  Eclogues, 
gorical  conceptions  whose  precise  interpretation  is  still 
debated  by  the  critics.  Another  argument  often  urged 
against  the  Eclogues  is,  that  where  they  are  not  allegori- 
cal they  are  mainly  imitations  of  the  Idyls  of  Theocritus ; 
that  the  names  and  allusions  are  chiefly  Greek,  and 
are  taken  from  the  pastoral  life  of  the  Sicily  of  the  third 
century  B.  C.  Hence  it  has  been  urged  that  the  study 
of  the  Eclogues  is  properly  adapted  only  to  advanced 
college  students  of  comparative  Hterature,  —  students 
who  know  Theocritus  and  who  can  trace  the  Virgilian 
poems  back  to  the  Sicilian  originals. 

But  the  experience  of  teachers  and  pupils  denies 
validity  to  the  foregoing  arguments.  Pupils  who  have 
read  the  Eclogues  in  the  schools  have,  with  Their  Liter- 
practical  unanimity,  declared  that  they  en-  a»7  charm, 
joyed  these  poems  more  than  anything  else  in  the 
entire  Latin  course  of  the  secondary  school.  Despite 
their  allegorical  and  mythological  features,  and  despite 


122  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

the  fact  that  they  are  palpable  imitations  of  Greek 
originals,  they  nevertheless  do  make  a  strong  appeal 
to  the  youthful  mind  which  cannot  be  ignored.  There 
is  danger,  perhaps,  of  condemning  too  precipitately 
every  literary  work  which  bears  traces  of  imitating 
some  previous  work.  All  of  Virgil  bears  the  same 
impress  of  his  Greek  originals  as  do  the  Eclogues. 
The  prime  question  in  all  these  works  and  all  similar 
works  is  not  merely  whether  they  exhibit  traces  of 
borrowing,  but  whether  they  exhibit  anything  else.  In 
Virgil  the  case  of  all  of  Virgil's  works  we  may  say 

Recreated.  that,  despite  the  obvious  evidences  of  in- 
debtedness to  his  predecessors,  he  is  no  irresponsible 
plagiarist  or  slavish  imitator.  He  is  a  true  poet,  with 
the  genius  and  endowment  of  a  poet.  In  form,  in 
phrase,  in  metaphor  and  simile,  he  has  drawn  with 
freedom,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  his  own  age 
and  of  all  antiquity,  upon  Homer,  Hesiod,  and  The- 
ocritus. But  in  spite  of  this  he  has  transformed  all  he 
took  with  the  spirit  of  his  own  genius;  he  has  re- 
created. It  is  this  which  makes  the  yEneid,  the 
Georgics,  the  Eclogues  all  great  poems,  and  which 
makes  each  in  its  totality  as  different  as  can  possibly 
be  from  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  the  Works  and  Days, 
or  the  Idyls  of  Theocritus.  Precisely  the  same  thing 
is  true  of  Shakspere  and  of  Milton. 

I  believe,  therefore,  that  the  Eclogues  have  a  clear 

title   to    a  place   in   the  curriculum  of  our   secondary 

,  ^^^    schools,  and  that  where   time  is  available,  it  would  be 

""^'^^  \^  ^^^^  t^  ^^^^  them.      They  exhibit  to  us  a  phase  of  an- 

sy^ ''^"^^^v^ient  literature  not  so  well  exemplified  by  anything  else 

N^^^A  I  know.     They  breathe  the  breath  of  spring,  the  per- 

Tennyson's      fume  of  flowers ;  they  suggest  the  charm  of 

Tribute,      nature  —  trees,  brooks,  hills,   lakes,   sun,  air, 

stars  —  in    her    manifold    phases.     They   touch    upon 


THE  ECLOGUES  — SALLUST  I23 

the  abounding  joys  of  country-life.  Tennyson's  three 
stanzas  well  exhibit  the  spell  which  these  unique  poems 
exercised  upon  himself: 

"  Poet  of  the  happy  Tityrus    • 

piping  underneath  his  beechen  bowers  ; 
Poet  of  the  poet-satyr 
-whom  the  laughing  shepherd  bound  with  flowers  ; 

"  Chanter  of  the  Pollio,  glorying 
in  the  blissful  years  again  to  be, 
Summers  of  the  snakeless  meadow, 
unlaborious  earth  and  oarless  sea ; 

"  Thou  that  seest  Universal 

Nature  moved  by  Universal  Mind, 
Thou  majestic  in  thy  sadness 
at  the  doubtful  doom  of  human  kind." 

This,  to  be  sure,  is  the  tribute  of  a  poet,  but  I  am 
convinced  that  the  attitude  of  pupils  will  be  generally 
analogous,  and  that  it  will  justify  the  study  of  these 
poems  wherever  time  allows.  All  their  subtleties  will 
not  be  apparent  to  the  young  student;  some  of  them 
have  not  even  yet  been  settled  by  the  critics,  and  may 
never  be,  but  there  is  enough  that  is  obvious,  that  is 
stimulating,  that  is  elevating,  to  make  them  legitimate 
and   worthy   objects   of  study   for   the    pupils    of  our  _pjr 

In  point  of  content  and  style,  Sallust  is  well  deserving  qJ^t 
of  representation  in  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary 
school.  Both  the  Jugurtha  and  the  Catiline  are  valu- 
able and  interesting  specimens  of  historical  prose  which 
will  well  repay  careful  study.  The  Catiline  in  particular 
is  instructive  as  correcting  the  one-sided  conception  of 


124  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

the  famous  conspiracy  derived  from  reading  only  Cicero's 
Catilinarian  speeches;  Sallust's  narrative  also  largely 
supplements  Cicero's  account  and  makes  the  historic 
picture  much  fuller  and  completer. 

The  great  difficulty,  however,  with  the  average  school 
is  to  find  time  for  reading  this  work.  The  Latin  curricu- 
lum of  the  secondary  school  is  already  full,  and  our  school 
programs  are  now  so  congested  that  in  most  cases  to  add 
more  work  is  to  increase  a  tension  already  too  great  and 
to  run  great  risk  of  lowering  the  quality  of  the  instruc- 
tion given. 

^<^'  V.  Ovid. 

<V  There  is  no  denying  the  charm  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 

phoses. Their  style,  too,  is  simple,  while  they  afford  no 
little  instruction  in  classical  mythology.  What  has  long 
existed  in  the  pupil's  mind  in  more  or  less  vagueness, 
now  takes  on  definite  shape,  as  he  reads  Ovid's  pictur- 
esque details  of  the  Deluge,  of  Phaethon,  of  Daphne,  etc. 
Yet  the  same  difficulty  confronts  us  here  as  in  the  case 
of  Sallust,  and  desirable  as  both  these  authors  are  in  an 
ideal  secondary  curriculum,  it  is  greatly  to  be  feared, 
despite  the  recent  recommendations  of  the  Committee 
of  Twelve,^  that  no  large  number  of  schools  will  find  it 
practicable  under  existing  conditions  to  introduce  either 
of  these  authors  into  the  Latin  program. 


VI.    Five-year  and  Six-year  Latin  Courses. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  been  based  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  the  course  of  Latin  study  in  the  secondary 
school  is  a  four-year  course  of  five  periods  a  week. 
Many  schools,  however,  already  have  five-year  and  six- 


1  Report,  p.  28  f. 


FIVE  AND  SIX  YEAR   COURSES  1 25 

year  courses,  and  the  number  of  such  longer  courses 
appears  to  be  constantly  on  the  increase.  In  view  of 
these  conditions,  the  Committee  of  Twelve  of  the 
American  Philological  Association,  in  its  recent  report 
to  the  National  Educational  Association,  makes  the  fol- 
lowing observations :  ^ 

"  The    demand    seemed    imperative   that   it    should 
undertake  to  formulate  courses  extending  beyond  the 

four-year   limit.      It   accordingly   presents  a 

n  1  •      J      ui     r  T-i-        Recommen- 

hve-year  course,  drawn  m  double  form.     I  he    dationofthe 

first  form  is  the  standard  four-year  course.    Committee 

of  Twelve, 
with  the  work  of  the  first  year  extended  over 

two  years  in  order  to  give  twice  the  amount  of  time  for 
grammar  lessons,  the  writing  of  simple  exercises,  and 
easy  reading.  This  form  is  intended  to  meet  AFive-Year 
the  needs  of  students  who  commence  Latin  a  Course, 
year  earlier  than  in  the  ordinary  four-year  course.  All 
educational  experience  shows  that  the  best  results  may 
be  secured  from  the  study  of  Latin  when  the  subject  is 
commenced  somewhat  earlier  than  is  usual  in  this  coun- 
try, and  at  least  two  years  are  given  to  the  elementary 
work  before  the  pupil  begins  the  reading  of  Nepos  or 
Caesar.  The  second  form  is  designed  for  schools  which 
have  more  mature  and  stronger  pupils.  The  work  of 
the  first  four  years  of  this  course  coincides  with  that  of 
the  four-year  standard  course ;  the  additional  year  is  de- 
voted mainly  to  reading.  The  recommendation  is  made 
that  Virgil's  JEneid  be  completed  in  order  that  pupils 
who  have  the  time  for  a  five-year  course  may  enjoy 
the  satisfaction  of  reading  to  the  end  the  greatest  Latin 
epic,  and  viewing  it  as  an  artistic  whole.  An  additional 
amount  of  Cicero  is  also  recommended :  the  two  essays 
On  Old  Age  and  On  Friendship,  which  are  short  and 


*  See  their  Report,  p.  35. 


126  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

complete  in  themselves,  together  with  some  of  the 
briefer  and  more  interesting  Letters.  Thus  the  pupil's 
acquaintance  with  Cicero's  many-sided  literary  and  in- 
tellectual accomplishments  will  be  extended,  while  the 
selections  suggested  will  furnish  the  best  possible  model 
of  style  for  the  writing  of  Latin  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
course. 

''  A  six-year  course  may  be  established  at  once  by  in- 
troducing Latin  into  the  last  two  years  of  the  grammar 
Six- Year  schools ;  such  was  the  method  adopted  in  the 
Course.  ^ity  of  Chicago.  Or  a  six-year  course  may 
be  developed  out  of  the  five-year  course,  through  the 
use  of  either  of  the  forms  which  have  been  suggested. 
In  either  case  it  is  obviously  desirable  to  aim  at  a  fair 
degree  of  uniformity  in  such  courses,  and  thus  avoid  for 
them  the  inconveniences  from  which  our  present  four- 
year  courses  suffer.  In  the  six-year  course,  at  any  rate, 
two  years  can  be  given  to  that  careful  and  thorough 
preparation  for  reading  which  not  only  forms  the  best 
foundation  for  all  later  work  in  Latin,  but  also  con 
stitutes,  for  this  period  of  the  student's  education,  the 
most  effective  instrument  of  training  in  exact  habits  of 
thought  and  of  expression.  If  two  years  are  given  to 
this  sort  of  work,  most  of  the  difficulties  felt  by  the 
young  pupil  in  entering  upon  the  study  of  Csesar  will 
have  been  anticipated  and  overcome.  Thus  arranged, 
the  first  five  years  of  the  six-year  course  and  the  five- 
year  course  in  the  first  form  presented  will  be  identical 
in  respect  of  the  subjects  taken  up  and  the  order  of  ar- 
rangement. The  work  of  the  sixth  year  will  then  corre- 
spond closely  with  that  of  the  last  year  of  the  five-year 
course  as  given  In  the  second  form ;  that  is,  it  will  be 
devoted  to  the  finishing  of  the  j^neid,  to  the  reading  of 
Cicero's  essays  On  Old  Age  and  On  Friendship,  and  of 
selected  Letters^  and  to  weekly  exercises  in  prose  com- 


FIVE  AND  SIX    YEAR   COURSES  12/ 

position  based  on  Cicero.  Here  also  the  principal 
object  should  be,  not  to  extend  widely  the  range  of 
authors  taken  up,  but  so  to  adjust  the  work  of  the 
course  to  the  needs  of  the  pupil's  intellectual  life  as 
most  effectively  to  promote  his  development  at  this 
period. 

"  In  a  number  of  cities  it  has  been  thought  advanta- 
geous to  give  two  years  of  Latin  in  the  grammar  school 
rather  than  one.  The  reason  is  that,  since  the  length  of 
the  high-school  course,  by  common  consent,  remains  fixed 
at  four  years,  the  study  of  Latin  for  only  a  single  year 
before  entrance  into  the  high  school  is  not  only  less 
fruitful  in  itself,  but  is  also  less  satisfactorily  adjusted 
to  the  other  studies  of  the  grammar-school  course.  The 
arrangement  is  also  found  to  be  advantageous  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  adjustment  of  the  grammar-school 
and  high-school  courses  to  each  other.  In  a  city  in 
which  two  years  are  given  to  Latin  in  the  grammar 
school,  the  high  school  also  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 
give  a  four-year  course.  Pupils,  then,  who  come  up  from 
the  grammar  schools  with  two  years  of  Latin  will  in  the 
high  school  find  it  possible  to  enter  upon  work  which 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
years  of  the  four-year  course,  and  will  need  to  be  taught 
separately  from  other  high-school  students  only  in  the 
sixth  year  of  their  Latin  study ;  in  other  words,  im- 
mediately upon  entering  the  high  school  they  may  be 
united  with  the  second-year  students  in  the  four- year 
course.  In  large  high  schools  separate  sections  need  to 
be  formed  in  any  case  for  each  Latin  class,  and  probably 
it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  teach  the  students  of 
the  six-year  course  by  themselves.  In  like  manner,  the 
adjustment  of  a  six-year  or  five-year  course  to  an 
already  existing  four-year  course  will  be  found  easy  in 
the  case  of  academies  and  private  schools. 


128 


AUTHORS  TO  BE  READ 


*'  A  plan  by  which  the  work  of  the  four-year  Latin 
course  may  be  correlated  with  that  of  the  six-year 
course  is  indicated  in  the  following  diagram: 


SIX-YEAR  COURSE 


Next-to-last  grade  in  grammar 
school 

First  year  of  Latin 


LmsI  grade  in  grammar  school 
Second  year  of  Latin 


First  year  in  high  school 
Third  year  of  Latin 


Second  year  in  high  school 
Fourth  year  of  Latin 


Third  year  in  high  school 
Fifth  year  of  Latin 


Fourth  year  in  high  school 
Sixth  year  of  Latin 


FOUR-YEAR  COURSE 


First  year  in  high  school 
First  year  of  Latin 


Second  year  in  high  school 
Second  year  of  Latin 


Third  year  in  high  school 
Third  year  of  Latin 


Fourth  year  in  high  school 
Fourth  year  of  Latin 


"  Led  by  the  considerations  which  have  been  briefly 
presented,  the  Committee,  after  careful  deliberation, 
has  framed  the  three  programs  subjoined:  one  for 
a  four-year  course,  one  for  a  five-year  course  (in  two 
forms),  and  one  for  a  six-year  course.  We  commend 
these  programs  to  the  consideration  of  the  schools, 
hoping  that  they  may  be  found  convenient  as  standard 
or  model  courses. 


FIVE  AND  SIX   YEAR   COURSES  1 29 

FIVE-YEAR   LATIN    COURSE. 

First  Form. 

{Five  periods  weekly  throughout  the  five  years.) 

FIRST   AND    SECOND   YEARS. 

The  same  as  the  first  year  of  the  four-year  course. 

THIRD   YEAR. 

The  same  as  the  second  year  of  the  four-year  course. 

FOURTH   AND    FIFTH   YEARS. 

The  same  as  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the  four-year 
course. 

FIVE-YEAR   LATIN  COURSE. 
Second  Form. 

{Five  periods  weekly  throughout  the  five  years.) 
FIRST   YEAR. 

The  same  as  the  first  year  of  the  four-year  course. 

SECOND   YEAR. 

The  same  as  the  second  year  of  the  four-year  course. 

THIRD    AND    FOURTH    YEARS. 

The  same  as  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the  four-year 
course. 

FIFTH    YEAR. 

Virgil's  ^neid :  completed. 

Cicero  :  De  Seneciute  and  De  Amicitia  ;  selected  Letters. 

The  equivalent  of  at  least  one  period  a  week  in  prose  com- 
position based  on  Cicero. 

The  reading  of  Latin  aloud.     The  memorizing  of  selected 
passages. 

9 


130  AUTHORS   TO  BE  READ 

SIX-YEAR  LATIN   COURSE. 

{Five  periods  weekly  throughout  the  six  years,) 

FIRST   AND   SECOND   YEARS. 

The  same  as  the  first  year  of  the  four-year  course. 

THIRD   YEAR. 

The  same  as  the  second  year  of  the  four-year  course, 

FOURTH   AND    FIFTH   YEARS. 

The  same  as  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  the  four-year 
course. 

SIXTH    YEAR. 

Virgil's  /Eneid:  completed. 

Cicero  :  De  Senectute  and  De  Amicitia  ;  selected  Letters. 

The  equivalent  of  at  least  one  period  a  week  in  prose  com- 
position based  on  Cicero. 

The  reading  ot  Latin  aloud.  The  memorizing  of  selected 
passages." 

It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  these  recommendations  may 
receive  careful  consideration  from  Latin  teachers  wher- 
ever it  may  be  feasible  to  put  them  into  effective 
operation. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CONDUCT   OP   THE   SECONDABY  WORK   IN   LATIN 

REFERENCE. 

Miller,  F.  J.  The  Preparatory  Course  in  Latin.  School  Review, 
1897.    p.  588  ff. 

I.   General  Points  on  which  Emphasis  should  be  laid. 

Assuming  that  the  purposes  of  Latin  study  in  the 
secondary  school  are  those  already  indicated  in  Chap- 
ter I.,  namely,  training  in  English,  the  strengthening  of 
the  mental  powers,  the  better  comprehension  of  the 
history  of  Roman  thought  and  institutions,  the  quicken- 
ing of  the  higher  literary  sense,  we  shall  easily  draw 
certain  conclusions  as  to  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Latin  teaching.  I  have  no  special  scheme  to  advocate, 
but  wish  simply  to  call  attention  to  one  or  two  impor- 
tant particulars,  in  which  it  seems  to  me  there  is  often 
neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  teachers  —  frequently  to 
the  great  and,  under  the  circumstances,  deserved  dis- 
credit of  Latin  as  an  educational  influence. 

a.  Translation.  To  begin  with,  if  Latin  Is  to  be  a 
means  of  training  in  English,  the  form  of  the  English 
translation  becomes  a  matter  of  the  first  im-  The  Form  of 
portance.  It  is  not  enough  for  the  pupil  Translation, 
to  grasp  the  idea,  and  then  to  render  it  in  a  mongrel 
idiom  half  Latin  and  half  English.  From  the  very  out- 
set of  Latin  study  the  standard  should  be  set  high,  and 
no  translation  accepted  which  will  not  stand  the  sever- 


132  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

est  test  as  to  the  orthodoxy  of  its  English.  It  should 
not  merely  be  idiomatic ;  it  should  possess  the  merits 
and  even  the  graces  of  style.  Wherever  a  rendering  is 
unnatural  and  smacks  of  the  original,  a  halt  should  be 
called,  and  improvement  demanded.  I  believe  I  am 
not  extreme  when  I  insist  that  no  translation  should 
ever  be  accepted  which  would  not,  when  written  out,  be 
accepted  as  fit  to  print.  It  the  pupil  is  not  capable  of 
this,  it  must  be  either  because  he  does  not  understand 
the  passage  to  be  rendered,  or  else  because  he  cannot 
express  in  English  a  thought  which  his  mind  clearly 
apprehends.  Either  of  these  difficulties,  if  it  exist, 
admits  of  remedy  by  judicious  instruction.  Such  in- 
struction may  be  slow,  —  both  at  the  outset  and  often 
afterwards,  —  for  it  involves  frequent  discussion  as  to 
the  choice  of  words  and  sentence-structure ;  but  pre- 
cisely herein  lies  the  advantage  of  the  study.  I  am  well 
aware  of  the  pressure  for  time,  and  can  appreciate  the 
temptation  of  the  teacher  to  accept  any  rendering  of  a 
passage,  however  un-EngHsh,  provided  it  indicates  that 
the  pupil  apprehends  the  thought.  But  I  insist  that 
there  is  no  falser  economy  than  a  surrender  under  such 
circumstances.  Compromises  of  this  sort  not  only  do 
not  save  time  in  the  long  run,  but  they  ignore  the  very 
principle  and  purpose  of  Latin  study,  and  ought  to 
make  that  study  stand  in  even  less  respect  among  the 
general  public  than  it  actually  does  to-day.  Yet  I  am 
convinced  that  the  habit  of  ignoring  the  form  of  transla- 
tion, provided  the  pupil  gets  the  sense,  is  practically 
epidemic.  More  than  this,  the  custom"  is  even  defended. 
I  know  of  teachers  who  soberly  maintain  their  pref- 
erence for  a  perfectly  literal  translation  on  the  ground 
that  such  a  rendering  facilitates  the  teaching  of  Latin 
syntax.  This  attitude,  I  think,  gives  us  the  key  to  the 
prevailing  methods  of  translation  from  Latin  into  Eng- 


GENERAL  POINTS  1 33 

lish.  Grammatical  knowledge  is  often  made  the  end  of 
Latin  study  instead  of  a  means.  Grammar  is  undoubt- 
edly indispensable  to  the  reading  of  Latin  authors ;  but 
is  it  not  a  fact  that  many  teachers  stop  at  this  point  of 
the  subject,  and  rest  content,  if  their  pupils  can  dispose 
successfully  of  the  ablatives  and  genitives,  the  subjunc- 
tives and  infinitives?  Is  not  "construction"  made  the 
culmination  of  the  study,  and  the  text  used  as  though  it 
were  but  a  convenient  lay-figure  upon  which  to  drape 
in  imposing  folds  the  robe  of  grammar  and  syntax?  I 
am  convinced  that  there  are  many  teachers  whose  atti- 
tude and  practice  are  not  misrepresented  by  this  com- 
parison. My  own  view  is  that  in  reading  an  author  the 
amount  of  grammatical  catechizing  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum ;  let  only  so  much  be  demanded  as  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  the  proper  understanding  of  the 
text.  Let  all  the  effort  be  directed  to  the  most  dis- 
criminating interpretation  of  the  passage  in  hand  as 
language  and  literature.  Let  the  study  be  an  ethical 
and  spiritual  one ;  let  the  pupil  feel  when  he  approaches 
it  that  he  is  to  receive  each  day  some  fresh  revelation  of 
the  nature  of  mind  and  its  workings. 

b.  Subject  matter.  As  regards  the  subject  matter  of 
authors  read,  I  beheve  our  secondary  schools  quite 
generally  make  one  very  serious  omission.  subject 
They  fail  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  Matter, 
grasping  the  narrative  or  argument  of  a  writer  in  its 
continuity.  The  tendency  is  to  read  simply  from  day 
to  day.  Too  little  effort  —  often  none  at  all  —  is  made 
to  bring  successive  lessons  into  relation,  to  show  the 
bearings  and  connection  of  the  different  parts  of  a  nar- 
rative or  speech.  How  few  pupils  after  reading  a  book 
of  Caesar  or  an  oration  of  Cicero  have  In  their  minds 
any  clear  and  consistent  picture  of  the  course  of  thought, 
the  line  of  argument,  its  strength  and  defects,  or  appre- 


134  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

hend  the  real  drift  of  the  piece  as  a  whole  !  Is  not  the 
piece  commonly  made  a  succession  of  "  takes,"  the 
order  of  which  might  be  varied  ad  libitumy  so  far  as 
concerns  interference  with  any  systematic  endeavour  to 
show  their  organic  connection  ?  And  is  not  the  impres- 
sion left  upon  the  minds  of  pupils  often  one  of  utter 
vagueness  as  to  what  it  is  all  about?  I  believe  the 
alleged  defect  to  be  very  general ;  and  if  it  is,  it  surely 
ought  to  be  remedied  at  once.  I  know  of  no  surer 
way  to  kill  all  literary  sense  and  encourage  mechanical 
formalism,  than  trie  exclusive  employment  of  the  ana- 
lytic method  of  study,  without  ever  a  thought  of  syn- 
thesis,—  always  taking  apart,  never  putting  together. 
Such  a  process  is  destructive  in  more  senses  than  one. 
Let  us  not  abandon  analysis  in  our  study  of  Latin, 
but  let  us  combine  with  it  a.  larger  use  of  synthetic 
Importance  i^^ethods.  After  a  pupil  has  translated  a 
of  Synthetic  book  of  Caesar  or  an  oration  of  Cicero,  let 
him,  under  the  teacher's  guidance,  go  care- 
fully over  the  whole;  let  him  build  up  thought  on 
thought,  until  he  comes  to  see  and  feel  the  piece  as  a 
unit.  I  believe  that  reform  in  this  particular  is  widely 
needed  in  the  schools  where  Latin  is  taught.  The 
ancient  languages  are  held  to  be  instruments  of  culture ; 
and  so  they  are  when  rightly  used.  But  culture  implies 
the  apprehension  of  things  in  their  relations.  It  is  not 
merely  a  familiarity  with  "  the  best  that  has  been 
thought  and  said."  If  it  were,  the  Dictionary  of  Fa- 
miliar Quotations  would  be  the  place  to  find  it.  Let 
us  bear  this  in  mind  as  we  teach  the  Latin  classics ;  let 
us  remember  that  they  are  not  merely  language,  but  — 
what  is  much  more  —  literature. 

c.  Grammar.  Attention  has  been  called  above  to 
the  danger  of  laying  undue  stress  upon  the  importance 
of  syntax  in  connection  with  translation,  even  to  the 


GENERAL  POINTS  135 

extent  of  neglecting  the  form  of  the  English  render- 
ing  and   the   proper   understanding   of  what   is   read. 

Grammatical   work,  however,  has   its    place, 

,        f.    Grammar, 
and  a  very  important  place,  m  the  study  of 

Latin  in  the  school.  Even  in  connection  with  the  daily 
translation  it  must  command  some  attention,  while  be- 
sides this  it  should  also  be  studied  separately,  I  believe, 
by  way  of  regular  lessons  to  be  assigned  for  formal 
recitation. 

Considered  from  the  purely  intellectual  point  of  view, 
grammar  is  by  no  means  the  arid,  profitless  study  that 
many  conceive  it  to  be.     Far  from  it.     On 
the  syntactical  side  in  particular  it  brings  us    cipiine  in 

face  to  face  with  the  severe  problems  of  logic,    f^'^y  °* 

r  &     '     Grammar. 

and  forces  upon  us  the  minute  and  conscien- 
tious consideration  of  complex  thought  relationships. 
Take  the  conditional  sentence,  for  example.  It  is  the 
function  of  grammar  to  offer  some  classification  of  the 
mass  of  material  falling  under  this  head.  Usually 
the  basis  of  classification  is  found  in  the  logical  impHca- 
tion  of  the  protasis  of  such  sentences.  Thus  in  one  type 
nothing  whatever  is  implied  as  to  the  truth  or  falsity  of 
what  is  assumed  in  the  protasis  ('  If  death  ends  all,  let 
us  eat,  drink,  and  be  merry').  In  another  type,  the 
protasis  suggests  that  the  substance  of  its  content  may 
eventually  be  realized  (*  Should  he  come,  I  should  refuse 
.him  admittance  ')  ;  while  yet  a  third  type  as  distinctly 
implies  that  the  supposed  case  is  contrary  to  fact 
('Were  I  a  rich  man,  I  should  gladly  help  you'). 
The  differentiation  of  these  three  types  of  protases  is 
something  requiring  a  definite  logical  effort,  and  the 
pupil  who  has  learned  accurately  to  distinguish  the 
three  has  made  important  attainments  in  the  way  of 
grasping  logical  relationships.  Particularly  instructive 
in  this  line  is  a  study  of  the  Latin  equivalents  of  those 


136  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

treacherous  modal  auxiliaries  *  may,'  '  should,*  *  would.* 
Logical   analysis  shows  that  we  have  not  merely  one 

*  may,'  and  one  *  should,'  etc.y  but  several,  —  all  clearly 
distinct  from  each  other  in  present  logical  value;  so 
that  the  pupil  who  is  translating  from  English  to  Latin 
is   forced   to  make   a   mental   equation   of  his   '  may,' 

*  should,'  or  *  would '  before  he  can  undertake  to 
render  the  thought  in  Latin.  *  The  class  may  please 
turn  to  page  52  '  is  one  '  may ' ;  '  Men  may  come  and 
men  may  go,  but  I  go  on  forever,'  is  another  *  may ' ; 
'  To-morrow  it  may  rain  '  is  another ;  while  *  From  this 
evidence  we  may  easily  conclude  ' ;  '  You  may  think 
to  succeed  in  this  audacity';  '  May  I  take  this  book?' 
all  represent  yet  other  varieties  of  this  elusive  auxiliary, 
whose  capacity  is  by  no  means  exhausted  by  the  above 
examples.  As  all  of  the  above  '  may's '  represent  dis- 
tinct logical  ideas,  so  each  one  will  demand  a  different 
form  of  rendering  in  Latin,  as  will  be  readily  recognised 
by  teachers.  Equally  varied  are  the  ideas  represented 
by  our  English  *  should '  and  *  would ; '  and  equally 
varied,  too,  the  mechanism  of  reproducing  in  Latin 
the  logical  values  which  they  represent.  In  short,  con- 
scientious grammatical  study  brings  out,  as  nothing  else 
can,  the  fact  that  grammar  is  not  a  mechanical  occupa- 
tion dealing  with  dead  formulas,  but  that  its  substance 
is  human  thought  in  its  infinite  and  stimulating  variety. 

Exceedingly  valuable  too  is  the  insight  afforded  by 
iuA^grammar  into  the  psychology  of  language,  —  its  life  and 
/^v*^**^         growth.     Illustrations  in  abundance  may  be 

drawn  from   sounds,  inflexions,  word-forma-    sight  into 
tion,  and  syntax ;    but  the  latter  field  alone    Jf^^^ge. 
must  serve  our  present  purpose.     The  pupil 
is  puzzled  at  first  to  find  the  Latin  ablative  used  with 
^  comparatives  in  the  sense  of  '  than,'  but  he  easily  sees 

the  psychology  of  the  idiom  when  he  learns  that  this 


CVU>Ul/Ua     J^-v^   Q^^iUu^^^r^A^' 


GENERAL  POINTS  137 

use  goes  back  to  the  true  ablative  or  *  from  '-case. 
'  Marcus  is  taller  than  Quintus,'  was,  therefore,  to  the 
Latin  mind,  *  Marcus  is  taller  (reckoning)  from  Quintus 
(as  a  standard)  ' ;  similarly  the  ablative  of  agent  with 
a  is  seen  to  go  back  to  a  *  from  '  use  of  the  case.  The 
sentence  a  Ccesare  accusatus  esty  originally  at  least,  and 
perhaps  always,  must  to  the  Roman  mind  have  meant 
*  he  was  accused  from  Caesar,'  i.  e.  the  action  proceeded 
from  Caesar  as  the  agent.  An  especially  instructive 
illustration  of  the  operation  of  the  Roman  folk-con- 
sciousness is  seen  in  the  construction  used  with  verbs 
of  fearing.  Thneo  ne  veniat  means  '  I  fear  he  will 
come ' ;  tinieo  ut  veniat,  *  I  fear  he  will  not  come,'  — 
to  the  pupil's  mind  an  apparent  inversion  of  all  reason. 
But  the  explanation  of  this  apparent  anomaly  is  easily 
furnished  in  the  fact  that  the  Latin  forms  of  expression 
have  developed  from  subjunctives  of  wish:  ne  veniat 
and  ut  veniat.  These  expressions  originally  meant 
respectively  '  may  he  not  come,'  '  may  he  only  {ut) 
come.'  Timeo  was  at  first  added  half-parenthetically 
to  express  a  fear  that  the  wish  might  not  be  realized. 
Thus  ti^neo,  ne  veniat,  from  meaning  '  may  he  not  come ; 
I  am  afraid  (he  will),'  soon  came  to  be  felt  as  virtually 
equivalent  to  *  I  am  afraid  that  he  will  come  ' ;  so  timeo 
ut  veniat,  *  I  am  afraid  he  will  not  come.'  What  we 
thus  translate,  however,  is  not  what  is  explicitly  stated 
in  the  Latin,  but  what  is  implied  in  that  which  is  stated. 
The  foregoing  are  but  familiar  examples  of  what  is 
meant  by  the  insight  into  the  psychology  of  language 
afforded  by  the  study  of  grammar.  Grammar  takes 
the  pupil  back  to  the  origin  of  constructions,  and  impels 
him  to  trace  the  evolution  of  the  conventional  forms  of 
speech. 

We   see    other    psychological    forces    at    play   also. 
Analogy   is   a   powerful   factor   in   syntax,    as   it  is  in 


138  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

sounds  and  inflexions.  Verbs  of  *  filling  '  normally  take 
an  ablative  (developed  from  the  ablative  of  means), 
yet  owing  to  the  analogy  of  the  genitive 
with  plenuSy  and  adjectives  of  '  fulness/  we 
find  compounds  of  -pleo  occasionally  construed  with 
the  genitive  at  all  periods  of  the  language.  In  oro, 
uxorem  ducas  (*  I  beg  you  to  get  married  '),  the  sub- 
junctive, by  origin,  was  a  jussive,  —  'Get  married,  I 
beg  you  to.'  But  by  analogy  the  subjunctive  soon 
came  to  figure  in  expressions  where  this  logical  expla- 
nation could  not  apply,  as  seen  in  expressions  like  non 
oro  uxorem  ducas  (*  I  don't  ask  you  to  marry'),  where 
the  explanation  *  Marry  a  wife ;  I  don't  beg  you  to,' 
would  be  manifestly  absurd.  Grammar,  too,  shows  how 
arbitrary  language  is.  To  denote  price,  definite  or 
indefinite,  the  ablative  was  originally  employed;  to 
denote  value,  definite  or  indefinite,  the  genitive  was 
employed.  As  a  result  of  the  near  relationship  of 
these  two  conceptions  of  value  and  price,  the  two  con- 
structions naturally  began  to  invade  each  other's  terri- 
tory. Four  genitives,  tanti,  quanti,  phiris,  minoris,  from 
the  earHest  times  on  were  mandatory  with  verbs  of 
'buying'  and  '  selling';  yet  the  construction  of  the  gen- 
itive with  expressions  of  '  buying '  and  *  selling '  went 
no  further ;  with  all  other  expressions  of  indefinite  price, 
e.  g.  magno,  maximo,  parvo,  minimo,  etc.  the  ablative 
was  as  mandatory  as  was  the  genitive  in  tanti,  quantiy 
etc.  There  can  hardly  be  profit  in  speculating  upon  the 
causes  for  this  distinction;  it  simply  illustrates  the 
fundamental  arbitrariness  of  language  in  its  historical 
development.  Language  was  not  primarily  a  creation 
of  the  logician,  but  an  emanation  from,  and  an  evolu- 
tion of,  the  folk-consciousness.  The  same  forces  which 
brought  it  into  existence  determined  in  the  main  its 
entire  future  career,  and  forever  precluded  the  existence 


GENERAL  POINTS  139 

of  an  Ideally  perfect  and  consistent  scheme  of  expres- 
sion. What  we  see  in  syntax,  therefore,  is  largely  the 
waywardness  and  inaccuracies  of  the  popular  mind. 
Literary  masters  exercised  a  certain  influence  in  giving 
currency  and  character  to  those  forms  of  speech  which 
they  deemed  superior  in  accuracy,  simplicity,  or  eflec- 
tiveness ;  but  they  could  not  create  the  forms  themselves 
or  alter  their  moulds  when  once  the  forms  were  cast. 

Syntax,  too,  shows  us  often  the  battle  of  two  rival 
constructions  in  a  struggle  for  supremacy.  No  better 
illustration  of  this  general  principle  can  be  speech- 
found  than  is  exhibited  by  the  history  of  the  Rivalry. 
constructions  with  similis.  In  our  earliest  Latinity 
(Plautus),  similis  is  construed  with  the  genitive  alone. 
Later,  probably  under  the  influence  of  par  and  similar 
words,  similis  begins  to  be  construed  with  the  dative. 
The  genitive,  however,  still  continues  in  vogue  and  is 
practically  mandatory  when  the  governed  word  is  a 
pronoun  or  the  designation  of  a  person.  In  point  of 
meaning,  absolutely  no  distinction  between  the  two 
cases  can  be  discovered ;  we  see  simply  a  struggle  for 
supremacy  between  two  rival  forms  of  equivalent  value. 
As  time  goes  on,  it  is  evident  that  the  invader  (the 
dative)  is  gaining  ground  rapidly.  In  the  post-Au- 
gustan writers  the  territory  of  the  genitive  becomes 
narrower  and  narrower ;  for  a  time  the  genitive  of  pro- 
nouns is  usual,  but  with  other  words,  whether  desig- 
nations of  persons  or  of  things,  the  dative  occupies  the 
field.  Ultimately  even  the  pronouns  succumb  to  the 
levelling  tendency,  till  by  the  time  of  Apuleius  the  dative 
is  practically  left  in  undisputed  supremacy. 

I  have  thus  far  been  considering  the  functions  of  gram- 
mar study,  particularly  syntactical  study,  —  as  a  training 
in  logic  and  as  illuminating  general  linguistic  psychology. 
Grammar  has  yet  one  other  function  which  demands 


I40  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

recognition,  — aesthetic  training.*  Such  training  is  an  in- 
evitable result  of  a  contemplation  of  excellences  of  style 
^Esthetic  in  the  choicer  masterpieces  of  Latin  read  in 
Phases.  ^^  schools.  Being  subtler  than  the  other 
kinds  of  training,  to  which  attention  has  above  been 
called,  it  is  less  certain  of  effective  communication  by  any 
of  the  customary  methods  of  instruction.  We  can  ex- 
plain facts  and  relationships,  genesis  and  development, 
to  our  pupils  with  tolerable  assurance  that  they  will 
apprehend  a  lucid  exposition  of  the  truth.  But  when 
it  comes  to  matters  of  taste  and  feeling,  the  case  is 
different.  We  may  indicate  our  own  emotions  and 
our  own  appreciation,  but  there  is  no  certainty  of  a 
response  on  the  pupil's  part,  as  there  is  in  the  case  of 
a  matter  presented  exclusively  to  his  understanding. 
Still  the  difficulties  of  communication  on  the  teacher's 
part  and  the  limits  of  appreciation  on  the  pupil's  part 
do  not  obliterate  the  existence  of  the  function  here 
claimed  for  grammatical  study ;  they  simply  prove  that 
there  is  less  certainty  of  making  this  function  effective. 
But  it  is  grammar  that  guides  us  through  word-order 
to  a  right  appreciation  of  the  relative  prominence  of 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses;  it  is  grammatical  study 
that  shows  us  the  force  of  such  rhetorical  devices  as 
synchysis  and  chiasmus ;  and  that  tells  us  the  difference 
between  the  rapid  summary  of  an  asyndetic  series  as 
compared  with  the  cumulative  effect  of  a  polysyndeton. 
It  is  nothing  but  objective  grammatical  study  that  can 
tell  us  the  subtle  differences  between  the  multitude  of 
synonymic  constructions,  revealing  their  shades  of  mean- 
ing, their  inward  character,  their  elevation  or  their  com- 
monplaceness,  their  literary  dignity  or  their  every-day 
colloquial  nature. 

1  See  particularly  Gildersleeve,i?jjaj/Jrt«</6'/«^/W,  p.  127  f.,*  Grammar 
and  Esthetics/ 


GENERAL  POINTS  141 

d.  How  scientific  should  a  school  grammar  be  ?  In 
a  strictly  scientific  grammar  of  Latin  or  any  language, 
the  facts  must  be  classified  on  the  basis  of  historical 
origin  and  historical  relationships.  A  school  gram- 
mar, however,  is  not  exclusively  scientific,  —  at  least 
not  in  its  arrangement  of  material.  It  must  consult 
largely  pedagogical  expediency.  While  faithful  to  the 
facts,  it  must  so  state  these  and  so  arrange  them  as  to 
facilitate  their  ready  comprehension  and  permanent 
retention  by  the  pupil.  Yet  within  Hmits  the  scientific 
ideal  may  be  consulted  and  followed  to  advantage  even 
in  a  school  manual.  In  our  own  country.  Recent 
the  tendency  during  the  last  twenty  years  Tendencies, 
has  been  to  narrow  so  far  as  possible  the  chasm  between 
the  purely  pedagogical  and  severely  scientific  mode  of 
treatment.  Wherever  the  scientific  exposition  or  the 
scientific  grouping  of  facts  can  be  readily  adapted  to 
the  understanding  of  pupils,  there  can  hardly  be  any 
question  as  to  the  propriety  of  conforming  to  the  scien- 
tific treatment.  Writers  of  school  grammars  have  not 
been  slow  to  see  this,  as  is  shown  by  the  improvements 
made  in  recent  years  in  the  direction  of  scientific  accu- 
racy. Thus  it  is  not  so  very  long  ago  that  /-stems  were 
indiscriminately  classed  with  consonant-stems  of  the 
third  declension.  Yet  historically  these  2-stems  were 
as  distinct  from  the  consonant-stems  as  were  nouns  of 
the  fourth  declension  (^/-stems).  Originally  they  had 
terminations  (in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singular, 
and  in  the  genitive  and  accusative  plural)  which  were 
not  shared  at  all  by  the  consonant  stems.  Our  recent 
grammars  recognise  this  fact  explicitly ;  many  of  them 
also  recognise  a  mixed  class,  consisting  of  those  con- 
sonant-stems which  have  partially  adapted  themselves 
to  the  declension  of  the  /-stems.  Similarly  the  verb, 
doy  dare,  despite  the  short  a  of  its  infinitive   and    its 


142  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

short  root  vowel  in  several  inflected  forms,  was  classed 
as  a  verb  of  the  first  conjugation.  Historically,  how- 
ever, dOi  dare,  is  an  irregular  verb, — just  as  irregular, 
and  irregular  in  the  same  way,  as  suniy  ferOy  volo,  eo  ; 
i.  e.  it  was  unthematic,  the  personal  endings  being  ap- 
pended directly  to  the  root  without  the  use  of  any 
connecting  vowel.  This  fact  is  now  quite  generally 
recognised  in  our  grammars.  In  the  same  way  the 
Latin  syntax  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  has  experi- 
enced many  radical  improvements.  The  ablative  with 
utor,  friiory  fungoVy  potior y  and  vescor  used  to  be  desig- 
nated as  an  ablative  in  special  construction.  This  was 
arbitrary  and  unsatisfactory.  To-day  the  pupil  learns 
that  the  ablative  with  these  verbs  is  simply  an  ablative 
of  means.  The  naturalness  of  this  is  perfectly  apparent 
even  to  the  elementary  pupil  so  soon  as  he  is  reminded 
that  all  these  verbs  were  originally  reflexive  middles, 
utor  meaning  'I  profit  myself;  fruoVy  *I  enjoy  my- 
^^  self ;  fiingOTy  *  I  busy  myself ;  potior y  '  I  make  my- 
,/^f^^\  self  master  * ;  vescor,  '  I  feed  myself.'  Similarly  in  the 
'"o:^A^^^iJ^^y*^^^^  of  the  verb,  the  tendency  is  strong  at  the  present 
•  »  ^^  day  to  introduce  into  our  school  grammars  the  true  scien- 
tific explanation  of  substantive  clauses  developed  from 
jussives  and  optatives.  I  refer  to  such  expressions  as 
postiilo  abeas  ;  postulo  ut  abeas  ;  sino  dicat ;  licet  abeas  ; 
oportet  die  as  ;  velim  veniat ;  cupio  ne  ve7tiat,  etc.  That 
the  dependent  subjunctive  in  clauses  of  this  type  is  not 
a  substantive  clause  of  purpose,  as  it  was  formerly 
explained,  is  made  sufficiently  clear  both  by  the  mean- 
ing and  history  of  these  clauses.  The  subjunctive  is 
simply  a  jussive  or  optative  that  was  once  used  para- 
tactically  and  later  came  to  be  felt  as  the  object  or 
subject  of  the  main  verb.  This  origin  is  so  simple  and 
natural  that  it  is  capable  of  easy  demonstration  to  the 
secondary  pupil.     It  is  easy  to  show  him  that  in  postulo 


^ 


GENERAL  POINTS  143 

fiat  or  postulo  ut  fiat,  the  original  sense  was  '  let  it  be 
done ;  I  demand  it ' ;  so  cupio  ne  veniat,  *  may  he  not 
come ;  that 's  my  wish.' 

In  general  it  seems  a  safe  principle  that,  wherever 
the  results  of  scientific  advance  in  our  knowledge  of 
Latin  grammar  are  of  such  nature  as  to  be  a  safe 
apprehended  by  the  pupils  of  the  secondary  Principle* 
school,  these  results  may  claim  a  place  in  our  school 
grammars.  Such  incorporation  would  seem  not  merely 
the  right  and  privilege  of  the  writer  of  a  school  grammar ; 
I  beHeve  I  am  not  going  too  far  when  I  assert  that  it  is 
also  his  duty.  In  some  cases  a  certain  arbitrariness 
^^^^^^^ven  is  justifiable.  The  construction  of  the  ablative 
■'•yt^  with  opus  est  is  almost  certainly  of  instrumental  origin. 
Yet  this  point  cannot  possibly  be  made  clear  to  the 
elementary  pupil.  To  my  mind,  however,  in  a  case 
like  this  and  in  some  similar  cases,  it  is  better  to  treat 
the  construction  in  the  light  of  our  best  knowledge 
rather  than  deliberately  to  inculcate  what  is  untrue. 
Care  must,  of  course,  be  taken  to  distinguish  between 
what  is  scientifically  established  and  what  is  mere  ten- 
tative hypothesis.  Care  must  be  taken,  too,  to  avoid 
the  introduction  of  unnecessary  and  difficult  explana- 
tions of  origins.  Thus  the  subjunctive  of  result  and 
the  subjunctive  of  characteristic  are  almost  certainly 
developments  of  the  potential  (the  *  should' -' would') 
subjunctive.  Yet  it  is  questionable  whether  it  is  wise 
to  treat  these  uses  of  the  subjunctive  as  subordinate 
potentials,  as  is  done  in  a  recently  published  Latin 
grammar.  For  the  ordinary  pupil  will  detect  no  trace 
of  the  '  should  '  -  *  would  '  idea  in  a  sentence  hke  PerscB 
ita  territi  sunt  ut  ad  naves  perfugerint,  or  in  nemo  fuit 
qui  non  vulneraretur.  While  subjunctives  like  this  were 
almost  certainly  extensions  and  developments  of  the 
'should'-* would'  use,  traces  of  the   original  value  of 


144  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

these  clauses  have  vanished  so  completely  that  probably 
they  can  no  longer  be  detected  in  one  per  cent  of  the 
clauses  of  result  and  clauses  of  characteristic  actually 
met  by  the  pupil.  In  cases  of  this  kind  it  seems  far 
better,  therefore,  to  offer  to  the  pupil  no  explanation 
of  origins,  but  to  content  one's  self  with  simply  stating 
the  facts  of  usage. 

e.  The  grammar  a  book  to  be  studied  and  learned. 
A  deplorable  tendency  has  manifested  itself  in  recent 
Recent  Weg-  X^^^^  ^^  make  the  grammar  primarily  a 
lect  of  the  book  of  reference  instead  of  a  book  to  be 
Grammar.  thoroughly  learned.  The  results  of  this  atti- 
tude are  mevitable.  From  nearly  every  quarter  come 
complaints  that  students  are  steadily  growing  away  from 
the  grammar;  that  they  no  longer  know  it  as  they  once 
did,  in  the  days  when  the  confident  boast  was  made 
that,  if  every  copy  of  Andrews  and  Stoddard's  Lati7i 
Grammar  were  blotted  out  of  existence,  the  boys  of 
One  Reason  the  Boston  Latin  School  would  restore  it  in 
for  this.  a  fortnight.  One  reason  for  the  changed 
attitude  has  been  the  excessive  bulk  of  most  of  our 
Latin  grammars.  Twenty  years  ago  they  were  books 
of  modest  size  covering  scarcely  more  than  three  hun- 
dred pages  of  open  typography.  Since  that  time  they 
have  quite  generally  swollen  in  bulk  with  successive 
editions.  Of  these  books  the  smallest  now  contains 
four  hundred  and  fifty  pages,  while  of  the  others  one 
approaches  five  hundred  pages,  and  a  third  nearly  six 
hundred  pages.  The  open  page,  too,  of  the  older  books 
has  in  their  later  editions  become  crowded ;  where  small 
pica,  long  primer,  and  bourgeois  formerly  met  the  eye, 
one  now  finds  extensive  paragraphs  of  minion  or  even 
agate. 

In  all  these  changes  the  pupil  of  the  secondary 
school  has  distinctly  suffered.     The  immense  mass   of 


GENERAL  POINTS  145 

material  offered  by  these  bulky  grammars  has  made  it 

extremely  difficult  even  for  many  teachers  to  determine 

what  is  essential  and  unessential.     Hence,  the  extensive 

resort  to  the  use  of  the  grammar  as  a  book  of  reference 

and  its  extensive  abandonment  as  a  subject  of  thorough 

formal  study.     This  aloofness  from  the  gram-  significance  of 

mar  has  led  quite   naturally  to  the  copious  Wholesale  in- 
^  .      ,       r  -1       troduction  of 

introduction  of  grammatical  references  m  the  References  in 

notes  of  our  secondary  school  texts.  In  the  ®^  '^®^^^- 
days  when  pupils  used  to  become  masters  of  the  Latin 
grammar  the  introduction  of  such  wholesale  references 
would  have  seemed  little  less  than  an  impertinence. 
To-day  when  the  grammar  is  no  longer  regarded  as 
something  for  independent  mastery,  these  references 
are  naturally  welcomed  by  the  pupil  and  teacher  alike. 
But  experience  shows  that  they  do  not  teach  grammar. 
A  recent  Virgil  contains  in  the  notes  to  six  books  of  the 
^neid  no  fewer  than  one  thousand  grammatical  refer- 
ences, —  many  of  them  to  such  familiar  constructions  as 
the  ablative  of  means,  the  subjunctive  of  purpose,  etc.y 
showing  that  even  in  his  fourth  year  the  pupil  still 
seems  to  need  assistance  in  the  simplest  syntactical 
problems.  It  is  entirely  natural  that  he  should  still 
need  such  assistance,  for  the  very  abundance  of  gram- 
matical references  always  supplied  in  the  notes  of  the 
text  studied  inevitably  begets  the  habit  of  depending 
upon  such  references  for  grammatical  help  and  as  irre- 
sistibly destroys  the  independent  acquisition  of  what 
every  Latin  pupil  of  the  secondary  school  ought  to 
know  with  the  greatest  certainty  and  accuracy. 

The  bulky  grammars  of  the  last  decade  or  more  have 
been  valuable  manuals  for  the  advanced  college  student, 
but  they  have,  I  believe,  signally  proved  their  lack  of 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  secondary  pupils.  If  such 
pupils  need  to  master  some  grammar,  it  is  indispensable 


146  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

that  they  be  provided  with  a  grammar  that  can  be 
learned.  What  is  needed  is  a  manual  that  states  the 
Necessity  for  essential  facts  of  the  language  with  scientific 
acompendi-  accuracy  and  in  clear  form.  In  this  matter 
ous  Work.  ^^  Americans  may  well  be  guided  by  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Germans.  German  experience  in  recent 
years  has  tended  to  restrict  the  bulk  of  school  grammars 
both  of  Latin  and  of  Greek,  and  has  demanded  the  incor- 
poration of  the  main  principles  of  the  language  in  com- 
pact manuals  of  less  than  three  hundred  pages.  Books  of 
this  compass  now  hold  the  field  in  Germany,  and  have  for 
the  last  fifteen  years  proved  more  and  more  conclusively 
their  ability  to  meet  the  severe  demands  of  the  German 
gymnasial  course.  — a  course  representing  quite  as  much 
in  scope  and  content,  and  more  in  thoroughness,  than 
that  pursued  by  the  average  American  graduate  who 
has  studied  Latin  in  school  and  college.  To  be  ade- 
quate for  the  requirements  of  the  average  student,  a 
Latin  grammar  does  not  need  to  include  all  the  facts 
of  the  Latin  language.  Isolated  or  peculiar  idioms  of 
form  or  syntax  met  in  the  course  of  reading  are  prop- 
erly explained  in  the  accompanying  notes ;  it  is  quite 
unnecessary  and  quite  unwise,  especially  in  a  grammar 
intended  primarily  for  beginners,  to  give  an  account 
of  every  special  deviation  from  normal  usage.  To 
give  space  to  these  is  to  incur  serious  risk  of  distorting 
the  true  perspective  of  actual  usage.  What  the  pupil 
needs  to  know  is  the  main  facts  of  the  language.  If  he 
acquires  these  as  his  primary  equipment,  he  will  the 
better  appreciate  the  relative  importance  and  frequency 
of  exceptional  usages  by  noting  such  points  in  con- 
nection with  his  reading. 
DettweUer's        In   discussing   the   features   which   should 

Postulates      to-dav   characterize   a    Latin    Grammar    in- 
foraLatln  ^  .  .  .        .     ^ 

Grammar.      tended  for  use  in  secondary  education  m  Ger- 


GENERAL  POINTS  I47 

many,  Dettweiler^  emphasizes,  among  other  points,  the 
following : 

I.  The  Latin  Grammar  must  limit  itself  to  a  statement 
of  those  facts  and  laws  of  usage  which  are  common  to  all 
Latin  writers.  All  individual  pecuHarities  should  be  left 
for  the  philologians. 

It  has  been  justly  observed  that  Latin  syntax  conveys 
the  impression  of  something  definite,  fixed,  and  ener- 
getic; that  it  is  dominated  by  a  spirit  of  strict  subordi- 
nation, and  that  these  features  of  the  language  are  an 
accurate  mirror  of  the  essential  spirit  of  the  Romans 
themselves  with  their  respect  for  authority  and  for  law. 
Yet  this  impression  of  the  language  certainly  fails  of 
being  gained  by  the  pupil  if  he  is  confronted  with  a  host 
of  exceptions  and  linguistic  peculiarities  which  hold 
only  for  individual  writers.  The  grammar  should  give 
systematically  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  language, 
therefore ;  the  exceptions  should  be  noted  as  they  occur 
in  the  individual  authors. 

2.  There  should  be  but  one  grammar ^  not  a  shorter 
and  a  longer?  If  the  grammar  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be 
a  book  in  which  the  pupil  can  become  thoroughly  at 
home.  The  acquired  local  memory  for  things  as  they 
stand  on  the  printed  page  is  something  that  comes  only 
with  time,  and  is  a  not  inconsiderable  factor  in  promot- 
ing an  intelligent  retention  of  what  has  been  learned. 
The  grammar,  too,  should,  in  its  arrangement  and  its 
diction,  agree  with  that  of  the  beginner's  book. 

3.  The  Latin  grammar  should  not  be  ultra-puristic 
in  its  basis;  i,  e,  it  should  not  assume  a  single  author  as 
the  sole  representative  of  correct  or  model  Latin,  and 
base  the  laws  of  the  language  upon  his  diction.     For  a 

1  In  Baumeister's  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre 
fur  hohere  Schulen,  vol.  iii.  Part  iii.  Lateinisch,  p.  32  ff. 
^  The  italics  correspond  to  Dettweiler's  spaced  type. 


148  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

long  time  Cicero's  usage  was  taken  as  the  basis  of  stand- 
ard Latin.  What  was  found  in  him  —  and  nothing  else 
—  might  be  imitated.  The  tendency  was  even  carried 
further,  and  certain  special  features  of  Cicero's  diction 
were  canonized  as  specially  qualified  to  serve  as  repre- 
sentatives of  pure  Latin.  This  is  not  only  irrational ;  it  is 
ludicrous.  It  betokens  a  desire  to  be  more  Roman  than 
the  Romans  themselves.  We  may  fairly  take  the  atti- 
tude that  anything  found  in  representative  writers  of  the 
best  period  is  correct  Latin,  even  though  it  do  not  once 
occur  in  Cicero.  The  fact  that  a  form  of  expression 
is  not  represented  in  that  author  is  by  no  means  con- 
clusive evidence  that  he  would  have  repudiated  it. 
Even  assuming  that  he  would,  it  is  unreasonable  for  us 
to  exalt  any  single  writer,  however  gifted  in  his  style, 
to  the  position  of  authority  which  in  the  past  has  so  fre- 
quently been  ascribed  to  Cicero. 

4.  It  is  desirable  that  the  Latin  Grammar  in  a  supple- 
mentary chapter  embrace  the  chief  features  of  Latin 
style,  i.e.  the  essential  points  of  stylistic  difference  be- 
tween Latin  and  the  vernacular  of  the  pupil. 

Most  Latin  grammars  which  have  appeared  in  Ger- 
many in  recent  years  recognise  the  validity  of  the  fore- 
going propositions.  Particularly  as  regards  the  first  and 
second  of  the  four  points  enumerated,  there  prevails  the 
most  hearty  unanimity,  as  may  be  seen  by  a  glance  at 
the  appended  lists  ^  of  the  leading  Latin  grammars  now 
in  vogue  in  Germany. 

LIST  A. 
Books  Shortened  in  Recent  Years. 

Ellendt-Seyffert.  34th  ed.,  Berlin,  1890,  303  pp. ;  37th  ed.  1893, 
265  pp.;  41st  ed,  1897,  265  pp. 

Lattmann-Muller.  6th  ed.,  Gottingen,  1890,  324  pp. ;  7th  cd.  1892, 
256  pp. 

1  Brought  down  to  1897. 


GENERAL  POINTS  149 

Schmidt,  Karl.  5th  ed.,  Vienna,  i88o,  296  pp. ;  6th  ed.,  improved  and 
abbreviated,  1883,  270  pp. ;  7th  ed.,  again  improved  and  abbreviated, 
1894,  236  pp. 

Goldbacher.  ist  ed.,  Vienna,  1883,  356  pp. ;  2d  ed.  1886,  284  pp. ;  last 
ed.  1894,  284  pp. 


LIST   B. 
Books  Lengthened  in  Becent  Years. 

Englemann.  iithed.,  Bamberg,  1880,  291  pp.;  13th  ed.,  Bamberg, 
1888,  303  pp. 

Scheindler,  Leipzig  and  Vienna,  ist  ed.,  1889,  212  pp. ;  2d  ed.  1892, 
239  pp. 

Holzweissig,  Hannover,     ist  ed.,  1885,  201  pp. ;  5th  ed.  1894,  224  pp. 


LIST   C. 

Grammars  whose  Bulk  has  remained  unaltered  in  Successive  Edi- 
tions, or  that  have  recently  appeared  in  a  First  Edition. 

Landgraf,^  Bamberg,  1893,  263  pp. 
Stegmann,^  Leipzig,  1890,  250  pp. 
Menge.i  Wolfenbiittel,  1886,  260  pp. 
Schmalz-Wagener,!  Bielefeld,  1891,  233  pp. 
Koziol,!  Prague,  1884,  272  pp. 
Friedersdorff,!  Berlin,  1893,  201  pp. 
Deecke,!  Berlin,  1893,  7f^  PP- 
Harre,^  Berlin,  1893,  358  pp. 
Ziemer,ii  Berlin,  1893,  396  pp. 

Note.  —  The  superior  numerals  indicate  the  number  of  the  edition. 

These  lists  are  exceedingly  instructive.  Of  six- 
teen leading  Latin  grammars  now  published  in  Ger- 
many but  three  exceed  three  hundred  pages,  significance 
Four  popular  grammars  in  extensive  use  have  °*  ^^^  ^^^*** 
been  reduced  from  books  of  over  three  hundred  pages 
to  an  average  of  about  two  hundred  and  sixty  pages 
each.  Of  books  lengthened  in  recent  years  but  one 
exceeds  three  hundred  pages;  while  the  same  is  true 
also  of  the  new  grammars  of  the  last  fifteen  years. 


ISO  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

Recent  movements  in  this  country  tend  to  show  that 
the  working  grammar  of  American  secondary  schools  is 
to  be  a  book  constructed  upon  the  plan  so  extensively  and 
so  successfully  followed  abroad,  namely,  that  of  a  clear 
and  concise  statement  of  the  essential  facts  with  careful 
ehmination  of  superfluous  erudition.  Within  the  last 
five  years  no  fewer  than  six  grammars  of  moderate 
compass  have  appeared  in  the  United  States,  while  as 
many  more  are  reported  to  be  now  in  preparation. 
This  timely  recognition  of  the  interests  of  the  secondary 
pupil  is  a  gratifying  augury  for  the  future  of  Latin  study 
in  our  schools. 


II.   Special   Points  to  be   Emphasized  in   Connection   with   the 
different  Latin  Authors  read  in  the  Secondary  School.^ 

a.    CcBsar?     i.    Study  the    military   system    of    the 
Romans,  and   make  it  the  subject  of  systematic  pres- 
Cajsar.       entation    to    the    class.      Have    the    pupils 
Miutary    understand  how  the  legion  was  organized  and 
System,     officered.    Study  military  evolutions,  methods 
of  siege,  equipments,  arms,  engines,  —  in  fine,  everything 
that  is  embraced  in  this  department  of  antiquities.     All 
our  editions  of  Caesar  now  have  admirable  summaries  of 
the  chief  facts  belonging  under  this  head,  so  that  well- 
digested  information  is  easily  accessible  to  the  student.^ 
A  familiarity  with  these  military  details  cannot  fail  to 
lend  greater  interest  to  the  reading  of  Caesar's  narrative ; 


1  The  attempt  is  here  made  merely  to  suggest  a  few  salient  points 
whose  recognition  in  teaching  seems  of  importance  for  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  author  read.  Many  other  points  will  inevitably  suggest 
themselves  to  the  teacher. 

2  See  in  general  the  exhaustive  work  of  T.  Rice  Holmes,  Casar's 
Conquest  of  Gaul.     The  Macmillan  Co.     1899. 

3  A  somewhat  fuller  presentation  is  found  in  H.  P.  Judson,  Ccssar's 
Army,  Boston.     Ginn  &  Co.     1887. 


C^SAR  151 

it  possesses,  too,  an  undoubted  culture  value  which  will 
well  repay  the  time  devoted  to  its  attainment. 

2.  At  some  stage  in  the  study  of  the  commentaries 
set  forth  the  motives  that  actuated  Caesar  in  his  Gallic 
campaigns.     Have  the  pupil  understand  that     c«sar's 
all  this  seven  years'  fighting  was  not  without     Motives. 

a  purpose,  that  very  likely  it  was  begun  and  continued 
in  the  exercise  of  great  political  sagacity  by  a  master- 
mind,—  a  mind  that  apprehended  the  superiority  of 
the  Roman  civilization  and  foresaw  the  inevitable  clash 
between  the  expanding  dominion  of  Rome  and  the 
politically  defective  institutions  of  her  neighbours. 
Show  further  what  were  the  specific  defects  of  the 
GalHc  civilization  of  Caesar's  day.  Explain  the  forces  at 
work  among  the  Celts,  —  all  eccentric ;  the  growth  of 
the  city  arrested  at  a  primitive  stage,  as  in  Greece ;  no 
tendency  toward  centralization  or  national  unity.  All 
this  may  easily  be  put  so  that  the  pupil  will  easily 
understand  how  necessary  it  was  that  Rome  should  in- 
tervene with  her  institutions  in  order  to  secure  political 
stability  among  the  Gauls  and  to  lay  solid  foundations 
for  the  future  civilization  of  western  Europe.  On  this 
subject  the  pupil  will  find  some  admirable  suggestions 
by  Mommsen  in  his  Roman  History^  Book  v.  chapter 
vii.     *  The  Subjugation  of  the  West.* 

3.  Lastly,  the  attempt  may  be  made  to  give  some  little 
sketch  of  the  institutions  (civil  and  religious)  of  the  chief 
nations    mentioned   by   Caesar,   namely,   the 

Gauls,  the  Germans,  and  the  Britons.     Much 
of  the  material  on  these  topics  will   naturally  be  fur- 
nished by  Caesar  himself,  but  it  will  need  supplementing 
with  matter  from  other  sources. 

b.  Cicero.  Cicero  is  important  not  only  for  his  good 
Latin  and  his  usually  good  style,  but  particularly  for 
the  light  that  his  orations  throw  upon  contemporary 


152  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

history.      The    speeches    against   Catiline   are   of   the 
first   importance,  reveaHng,  as  they  do,  the 
poHtical  and  social  unrest  of  the  day,  —  an 
omen    of   the    complete    collapse   of    the    republican 
organization. 
,    fj,U^    AH  the  orations,  too,  afford  the  best  opportunity  for 
v'^     *^  ^^^  study  of  the  actual  workings  of  the  machinery  of 
y    %^f\J-^^  '^^^''^^''^'^^he    Roman   state.       Every   pupil   ought   to 
*^    ^        Pouticai       understand,  at  least  in  its  main  outlines,  the 
Jjtt*V'        Sn"*^"     Roman    constitution,   the    functions   of    the 
^^^^^  ^  magistrates,  —  consuls,  praetors,  aediles,  cen- 

sors, tribunes,  quaestors,  etc.,  —  the  organization  and 
jurisdiction  of  the  Senate,  the  functions  of  the  various 
popular  assemblies,  especially  the  Comitia  Centuriatay 
the  Comitia  Tributa,  the  Concilium  Plebis,  the  methods 
of  provincial  administration,  and  the  other  fundamental 
features  of  the  old  Roman  public  life.  Here  again  the 
introductions  to  our  recent  editions  of  Cicero's  speeches 
afford  excellent  guidance.  Gow's  Companion  to  School 
Classics  also  contains  some  condensed  information  on 
this  point. 
'^s^  Cicero's  character,  too,  stands  out  in  clear  relief  in  his 

orations.  It  is  important  that  the  teacher  endeavour 
Cicero's  ^o  guide  the  pupil  to  an  understanding  and 
PersonaUty.  appreciation  of  Cicero  as  a  man,  —  always  of 
good  intentions,  and  of  high  moral  purpose,  yet  vain, 
of  narrow  political  vision,  and  often  lacking  strength  of 
character  in  emergencies.  If  possible,  the  pupil  should 
be  stimulated  to  read  parts,  at  least,  of  some  of  the 
more  recent  lives  of  the  great  orator,  e.  g.  TroUope's 
Life  of  Cicero  or  Strachan-Davidson's  Cicero  and  the 
Fall  of  the  Romaii  Republic, 

Even  despite  Cicero's  undeniable  merits  as  a  stylist, 
yet  he  is  far  from  faultless.  It  will  be  a  mistake  to 
endeavour  to  conceal  this  fact  from  the  pupil.     Cicero 


n 


CICERO  AND    VIRGIL  153 

is   often   culpably  redundant.     Worse   than   that,  this 
very  exuberance  of  diction  is  not  infrequently  the  cloak 
for   defective   logic    or    lack    of    argument.     ^.      , 
Again,  Cicero  is  often  guilty  of  gross  exag-    styUstic 
geration  of  the  truth.     In  short,  even  in  his    ^^®^*^- 
political  speeches,  it  is  often  the  attorney  that  stands 
before   us    rather   than   the   statesman   or    the   candid 
student  of  affairs.     All  this  is  perfectly  natural  when 
we   consider    the   heated    partisanship    and    desperate 
struggles   of  the  day;   yet  it  is  nevertheless  a  factor 
which   cannot    be   ignored    in    any   fair   judgment   of 
Cicero's  speeches  when  considered  by  the  standard  of 
absolute  truth,  sincerity,  and  artistic  form. 

c.    Virgil's  yEneid.     The  ^neid  is  one  of  the  world's 
great  poems.     Yet  the  pupil  needs  guidance  and  assist- 
ance in  order  properly  to  appreciate  this  fact,    virgii. 
He  is  naturally  inclined  to  judge  the  ^?ieid   Greatness  of 
by  purely  modern  standards.     Considered  in    ^e  -SEneid. 
this  light  the  poem  undoubtedly  possesses  glaring  de- 
fects.    To  our  modern  sense,  ^neas  is  anything   but 
a  romantic  character.     His  desertion  of  the    ^j^g  j,jj^_ 
fated  Dido  brings  him  instant  condemnation    acter  of 
on  the  part  of  all  of  us.     But  the  pupil  should 
be  made  to  judge  this  act  in  the  antique  light.     As  a 
servant  of  the  gods,  and  the  instrument  for  executing  their 
decrees,  ^Eneas's  only  course  was  to  obey  their  com- 
mands.   His  abandonment  of  the  Punic  queen  was  not  the 
result  of  the  waning  of  a  brief  fancy ;  it  was  dictated  from 
on  high,  and  demanded  the  resolution  and  courage  of  a 
hero  for  its  execution.     The  epithet ////5,  too,  conveys 
to  the  English  and  American  mind  an  unfortunate  con- 
notation.    The  English  pious  does  not  to  us  suggest  the 
hero.     It  suggests  instead   a  combination  of  dogmatic 
theology   and    respect   for   the   forms   of  some   estab- 
lished cult.     This  suggestion  is  so  strong  that,  where 


154  CONDUCT  OF  THE    WORK 

pious  is  used  (and  it  generally  is)  as  a  rendering  for  the 
Latin ////5,  m  plus  j^neas,  the  pupil  attaches  the  quali- 
ties of  weakness  rather  than  of  strength  to  the  central 
figure  of  this  great  epic.  Pins  ^neas  almost  defies 
translation  in  our  own  language.  Virgil  wishes  to  de- 
pict his  hero  as  faithful  to  his  whole  duty  toward  his 
parent,  his  wife,  his  child,  his  fellow-men,  and  above 
all  toward  the  gods.  This  was  pietas,  —  one  of  the 
cardinal  Roman  virtues,  as  it  is  one  of  the  cardinal  vir- 
tues of  all  times.  Virgil  wishes  to  exhibit  ^neas  to  us 
as  devoted,  as  tender,  as  loyal,  faithful,  just,  sympa- 
thetic, reverent,  and  obedient; — all  of  this  and  doubt- 
less more  is  contained  in  the  one  epithet //z/i",  for  which 
our  own  language  possesses  no  adequate  single  equiv- 
alent. Nor  is  ^neas  deficient  in  the  sturdier  virtues  so 
prized  by  the  ancients.  He  is  patient  in  trouble ;  he  is 
courageous  in  disaster ;  he  is  valiant  in  the  fight.  As  a 
representative  of  martial  prowess  he  is,  of  course,  less 
conspicuous  than  the  Homeric  heroes.  But  while  most 
of  these  excel  only  in  hewing  and  smiting,  ^neas 
exhibits  a  robustness  of  moral  virtue  almost  totally 
lacking  in  the  great  figures  of  the  Iliad^  and  not  yet 
prominent  even  in  the  Odyssey, 

The  character  of  ^neas,  then,  must  be  interpreted 
by  antique,  not  by  modern,  standards.     To  understand 
^neas  we  must  go  back  to  the  conception  of  society, 
of  the  state,  and  of  man's  place  in  the  world,  which  pre- 
vailed twenty  centuries  ago.     Viewed  in  this  light  ^Cneas 
will  be  seen  to  be  the  embodiment  of  the  moral  qualities 
that  constituted  the  very  essence  of  the  Roman  character. 
/^Another   feature   of    the   ^neid   which    sometimes 
\  ycauses  adverse  criticism  is  the  great  extent  of  Virgil's 
/  The  Charge      indebtedness  to  Homer  and  to  earlier  Latin 
^■O^     of  Imitation,    p^g^s      T\\\s  borrowing  is  evident  on  every 
^^ j^     page.  ^-  In  phrase,  in  epithet,  in  figure,  in  simile,  Virgil 


/^ 


/><'<// 


VIRGIL  155 

has  freely  appropriated  whatever  served  his  purpose. 
But  in  so  doing  he  was  only  following  the  prevailing 
custom  of  his  day,  and  this  free  appropriation  of  the 
structural  elements  of  which  the  ^neid  is  composed 
should  not  blind  us  to  the  majesty  of  the  original  ideas 
which  Virgil  has  incorporated  in  the  poem.  After  all, 
it  is  only  in  unessential  externals  that  the  ^neid  is 
an  imitative  poem.  Just  as  the  character  of  unique  Roman 
^neas  himself  is  instinct  with  the  cardinal  Features. 
Roman  virtues,  so  the  j^7ieid  as  a  whole  breathes  an 
intensely  national  spirit,  in  that  it  gives  such  decisive 
expression  to  the  idea  of  Rome's  mission  in  the  world ; 
her  consciousness  of  imperial  destiny ;  her  function  as 
mistress  of  the  nations  and  the  civilizer  of  mankind. 
This  idea  is  finely  wrought  into  the  whole  fabric  of  the 
poem,  reaching  its  climax  in  vi.  847  ff. : 

"  Excudent  alii  spirantia  mollius  aera, 
Credo  equidem,  vivos  ducent  de  marmore  vultus, 
Orabunt  causas  melius,  caelique  meatus 
Describent  radio,  et  surgentia  sidera  dicent: 
Tu  regere  imperio  populos,  Romane,  memento  — 
Hae  tibi  erunt  artes  —  pacisque  imponere  morem, 
Parcere  subjectis  et  debellare  superbos." 

Linked  with  this  intensely  national  spirit  is  the  poet's 
sincere  admiration  for  the  Emperor  Augustus.  Pro- 
foundly impressed  with  the  horrors  of  Rome's 
recent  past,  conscious  of  the  necessity  of  a  "^^ 
new  political  order,  and  imbued  with  a  deep  faith  that 
in  Augustus  lay  the  only  hope  for  the  moral  and  politi- 
cal regeneration  of  the  state,  Virgil  lent  his  whole 
energy  to  the  glorification  of  the  Julian  house,  sur- 
rounding its  past  with  the  most  splendid  halo  that  his 
imagination  could  suggest,  in  the  evident  endeavour  to 
increase  its  present  prestige  and  perpetuate  its  beneficent 
influence. 


156  CONDUCT  OF  THE   WORK 

It  is  well  that  the  pupil  should  appreciate  the  fore- 
going points  in  reading  the  ^neid.  For  only  so  can 
he  appreciate  the  true  proportions  of  the  character  of 
^neas  and  the  genuine  originality  and  majesty  of  the 
poem  as  a  whole. 

d.  Use  of  translations.  In  connection  with  the  daily 
work  of  the  pupil  it  is  often  possible  for  the  teacher  to 
make  effective  use  of  translations.  This  work  may  take 
two  forms : 

1.  The  teacher  may  read  aloud  to  the  class  a  transla- 
tion of  the  work  thus  far  covered  by  the  pupils.  This 
procedure  helps  greatly  to  intensify  the  pupil's  synthetic 
conception  of  what  he  has  already  studied.  He  now 
sees  as  an  organic  whole  the  campaign,  the  speech,  or 
the  epic  episode  which  he  has  previously  studied  slowly 
and  laboriously  in  Caesar,  Cicero,  or  Virgil. 

2.  Again,  the  teacher  may  read  to  the  class  other  por- 
tions of  Caesar  and  Virgil  than  those  read  in  the  course, 
or  other  speeches  of  Cicero.  Only  relatively  few  pupils 
read  in  school  all  of  the  Gallic  War  or  all  of  the  JEneid, 
while  none  ever  read  more  than  ten  or  a  dozen  of 
Cicero's  speeches.  By  means  of  translations,  oppor- 
tunity is  thus  offered  for  widely  extending  the  pupil's 
apprehension  of  Latin  on  the  *'  content "  side  of  the 
study.  The  concluding  portions  of  the  Gallic  War 
constitute  beyond  question  the  most  absorbing  part  of 
Caesar's  entire  narrative.  The  last  six  books  of  the 
^neid  also,  while  perhaps  inferior  in  interest  to  the 
earlier  books,  are  well  worth  careful  reading.  It  is  a 
satisfaction,  too,  to  have  read  all  of  these  two  works, 
even  though  partly  in  translation.  Of  Cicero's  orations 
there  are  many  that  give  the  pupil  a  better  conception 
of  the  political  conditions  of  the  day  than  can  well  be 
secured  by  any  other  means.  Thus  the  Verrine  ora- 
tions give  us  a  picture  of  the  extent  to  which  the  mal- 


TRANSLA  TIONS  1 57 

administration  of  the  provinces  might  be  carried  by  an 
unscrupulous  governor.  The  pro  Milone  exhibits  the 
excesses  of  partisan  turbulence  in  the  last  days  of  the 
republic,  while  the  whole  series  of  the  Philippics  shows 
us  Cicero  in  the  fullest  dignity  and  loftiness  of  character 
manifested  during  his  entire  career. 

Thoroughly  satisfactory  translations  of  all  the  fore- 
going works,  it  must  be  admitted,  are  not  at  present 
easily  accessible.  For  Virgil  we  have  numerous  good 
versions  both  in  prose  and  verse.  But  for  Csesar  and 
Cicero  the  Bohn  translations  are  the  only  available  ones 
known  to  me.  Still  these  latter,  with  all  their  defects, 
may  be  made  to  do  good  service,  while  the  demand  for 
something  better  is  sure  in  time  to  be  amply  met. 


CHAPTER  V 

LATIN  COMPOSITION 

There  is  probably  no  subject  in  the  entire  range  of 

secondary  Latin  teaching  upon  which  there  exists  such 

a  radical  difference  of  opinion  as  upon  the  best  way  of 

The  Two  Dif.  teaching  Latin  composition.     This  divergence 

ferent  Ways  of  view  is  clearly  represented  in  two  kinds  of 
of  Teaching  it.  ,  j    r  •       ^i 

manuals  prepared  for  use  m    the  secondary 

schools.  These  books  may  be  conveniently  designated 
as  the  old-fashioned  and  the  new.  The  plan  of  the  old- 
The  Tradi-  fashioned  book,  which  still  commands  great 
tionai  Method,  confidence  and  respect  (as  I  shall  hope  to 
show  it  deserves),  is  to  take  up  the  various  grammatical 
categories  in  turn.  The  treatment  is  severely  syste- 
matic, following  closely  the  order  and  classification  of  the 
same  material  as  presented  in  the  Grammar.  Thus  the 
various  case-  and  mood-constructions  are  taken  up  in 
turn.  The  lesson  begins  with  references  to  the  Gram- 
mar covering  the  subject  under  discussion.  These 
references  are  followed  by  sentences  to  be  memorized, 
illustrating  the  syntactical  principles  involved.  A 
vocabulary  of  new  words  (also  to  be  memorized)  is 
added,  and  the  lesson  culminates  in  a  series  of  English 
sentences  to  be  turned  into  Latin ;  these  sentences,  of 
course,  involve  the  repeated  application  of  the  syntac- 
tical principles  which  the  lesson  is  designed  to  illustrate 
and  enforce.  This  is  the  old-fashioned  plan  of  teaching 
Latin  composition. 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  1 59 

The  new-fashioned  plan  was   first   championed    and 
made   available   in  this  country  in   the   books  of  Mr. 
Collar  and  Mr.  Daniell.      Almost  simultane-    ,^^  sit-Tftx 
ously  in  the  year  1 889,  each  of  these  educators    Plan, 
issued  a  Latin  Composition  of  a  novel  sort.     The  plan  is 
this: 

The  pupil  is  given  a  piece  of  continuous  discourse  to 
turn  into  Latin.  This  piece  of  continuous  discourse  is 
based  upon  a  passage  of  original  Latin  which  the  pupil 
has  already  read,  and  to  which  he  is  now  specifically  re- 
ferred. The  book  is  furnished  with  no  English-Latin 
vocabularies,  either  special  or  general.  It  has  no  model 
sentences  to  be  committed  to  memory.  The  English 
given  for  translation  into  Latin  is  naturally  a  rather  close 
imitation  of  the  original.  A  fair  sample  of  what  is  usu- 
ally set  may  be  seen  by  comparing  a  translation  of  Caesar, 
De  Bello  Gallico,  iv.  19,  with  an  exercise  of  the  sort  men- 
tioned which  is  based  upon  it.^  The  translation  of  the 
Caesar  passage  runs  as  follows :  ''  Caesar  having  Hngered  a 
few  days  in  their  territory,  having  burned  all  their  villages 
and  dwellings,  and  cut  down  all  their  grain,  marched 
into  the  country  of  the  Ubii ;  having  promised  these  his 
help  in  case  they  should  be  hard  pressed  by  the  Suebi, 
he  heard  the  following  news :  The  Suebi  upon  learning 
through  scouts  that  a  bridge  was  being  built,  held  a 
council  according  to  their  custom,  and  sent  messengers 
in  all  directions  urging  the  people  to  move  away,  and 
place  their  wives,  children,  and  all  their  possessions  in 
the  woods." 

The  English  modelled  upon  this,  and  set  for  trans- 
lation, is  as  follows : 

*' Caesar  tarried  a  few  days  in  the  territory  of  the 
Sugambri  until  he  could  cut  down  their  grain ;  then  went 


1  Taken  at  random  from  Moulton,  Preparatory  Latin  Composition,  p.  75. 


l6o  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

to  the  country  of  the  Ubii,  whom  he  promised  to  free 

from  the  oppression  of  the  Suebi.     Meanwhile  the  latter 

had  sent  messengers  in  all  directions  announcing  that  a 

bridge  was  being  built  over  the  Rhine  by  Caesar,  and 

urging  the  women  and  children  to  flee  to  the  woods." 

Before  making  any  comments  upon  this  exercise,  let 

us  get  well  before  us,  if  we  can,  the  purpose  of  Latin 

_  composition.     Why  is  it  to  be  studied  in  the 

The  Purpose  .       .  , ,  ^,  ":  ,  , .  ,  _. 

of  Studying     schools  ?     What   does  It   accomplish  ?     The 

Latin  Com-  field  may  be  partially  cleared  by  stating,  first, 
position.  ,         .    \        ^  ^  ,.  1  ,  .1 

what  It  does  not  accomplish,  at  least  in  the 

school,  namely,  an  ability  to  write  continuous  Latin  with 
fluency  and  ease.  Whatever  be  the  purpose  of  the  study. 
What  it  does  ^^  cannot  be  that.  For  I  am  convinced  no 
not  Accom-  one  ever  does  learn  to  write  Latin  of  this  kind 
^^^^'  in  the  school  by  any  method  of  study  yet 

devised,  despite  the  occasional  prescription  of  an  ability 
to  write  simple  Latin  prose  in  the  entrance  requirements 
of  our  colleges.  In  fact,  even  in  the  college  itself  the 
ability  to  compose  continuous  Latin  prose  is  a  capacity 
acquired  by  but  few,  —  chiefly  those  who  specialize 
somewhat  carefully  in  the  classical  field. 

What,  then,  is  the  purpose  and  function  of  Latin  com- 
position in  the  secondary  school  ?  So  far  as  reason  and 
experience  enable  me  to  judge,  the  study  of  Latin  com- 
To Increase  Position  is  primarily  intended  to  increase  the 
Knowledge  accuracy,  breadth,  and  certainty  of  the 
of  Grammar,  pupil's  grammatical  knowledge,  —  more  par- 
ticularly his  knowledge  of  syntax.  He  first  learns  the 
Subjunctive  of  Purpose,  let  us  say,  or  the  Gerundive 
construction,  by  learning  to  recognise  these  idioms  when 
How  it  he  meets  them  in  his  reading.     But  this  is 

Achieves  only  partial  knowledge.  A  completer  knowl- 
^^^*  edge  of  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  or  the 

Gerundive    construction    is    acquired   when    the    pupil 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  l6l 

learns  to  employ  these  in  actual  phrases  of  his  own 
making.  He  then  sees  these  constructions  from  a  new 
side,  and  a  practical  side.  The  act  of  constructing  sen- 
tences which  contain  these,  fixes  his  mind  more  in- 
tently upon  the  construction  than  ever  before.  His 
knowledge  of  it  is  fuller  and  surer.  Hence  it  is  prima- 
rily as  contributory  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  gram- 
mar, that  the  study  of  Latin  composition  is  of  value. 
Incidentally  it  does  give  initial  instruction  in  composing 
Latin,  should  the  pupil  ever  get  far  enough  along  in  his 
study  of  Latin  to  venture  to  undertake  actual  serious 
composition  in  that  language.  But  the  school  can  give 
nothing  but  the  elementary  technique  of  composition,  if 
we  use  this  word  in  the  sense  of  composing  continuous 
Latin.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  drawing  in  the  schools,  the 
object  of  the  study  is  not  to  make  artists  of  the  pupils: 
the  elementary  technique  of  the  art  is  given  them ;  but 
the  justification  of  the  study  must  be  found  in  the 
quickened  observational  power,  and  in  the  training  of 
the  hand  which  drawing  brings. 

Such,  now,  being  the  purpose  of  the  study  of  Latin 
Composition,  namely,  the  acquirement  of  a  deeper  and 
surer  and  more   subjective  mastery  of  Latin  grammar, 
the    question   presents   itself.  Which  of  the    two    plans 
sketched   at  the  outset  of  our   discussion   is   likely  to 
prove  the  better,  the  old-fashioned   plan   or  the  new- 
fashioned  ?    My  conviction  is  emphatically  in  favour  of  the 
old-fashioned  plan.     The  old-fashioned  plan 
is  systematic.     The  problem  is  to  teach  the    tionai 
various    grammatical    categories,    to    enforce    Method  more 
them  and  bring  them  home  to  the  pupil,  so     ^^  ^™* 
that  he  will  feel  them  with  a  new  intensity.     The  old- 
fashioned  plan  seems  to  me  admirably  adapted  to  bring- 
ing this  about,  because,  I  say,  it  is  systematic.     It  takes 
the  different  constructions,  one  at  a  time,  and  treats  them 


1 62  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

by  a   large   number  of  illustrative   sentences.      Thus, 

under  the  Clause  of  Characteristic,  or  under  the  Ablative 

Absolute,  so  many  illustrative  sentences  are  given  that  a 

definite  and  deep  impression  is  conveyed,  and  one  may 

count  on  the  pupil's  getting  a  firm  hold  of  the  idioms 

under  discussion.     In  the  new-fashioned  plan,  on  the 

other  hand,  there  is  no  such  massing.     The  Ablative 

Absolute  or  Clause  of  Characteristic  may  be  involved  in 

a  single  sentence  of  a  given  exercise,  and  then  not  met 

again  for  weeks.     Now  a  vital  psychological  principle 

seems  to  me  to  be  involved  here.     All  my  experience 

with  pupils  has  taught  me  to  believe  in  the  virtue  of  the 

Advantages      amplest    possible   illustration   of    everything 

!f,^^!?^  "    difBcult,  and  of  massing^  this  illustration  at  a 

lUustrations  .  .  ,       - 

ofaPrin-        given  time,  instead  of  scattering  it  sporadi- 

*^^^®*  cally  over  a  longer  period  of  time,  and  further 

of  massing  it  on  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  not  distrib- 
uting diluted  illustrations  on  a  multitude  of  different 
things.  Thus,  to  be  concrete :  The  Clause  of  Charac- 
teristic is  difficult.  It  needs  much  illustration.  Let  us 
say,  illustration  by  means  of  twelve  English  sentences 
to  be  turned  into  Latin.  My  experience^  leads  me  to 
believe  that  these  twelve  illustrative  sentences  would 
better  be  massed  at  one  time,  than  distributed  over  a 
dozen  separate  lessons,  as  done  by  the  new-fashioned 
plan,  and  that  until  that  massing  is  consummated,  and 
the  Clause  of  Characteristic,  or  whatever  else  it  may  be, 
is  amply  illustrated  and  the  intended  impression  made 
upon  the  pupil's  mind, —  until  this  is  done,  other  idioms 
and  constructions  would  better  stand  aside.  It  is  for 
precisely  this  reason  that  I  distrust  the  new-fashioned 
way  of  pursuing  the  study  of  Latin  composition.  To 
me  it  seems  psychologically  defective.  It  does  not 
mass;    it  scatters. 

Moreover,  the  old-fashioned  plan  employs  yet  other 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  1 63 

resources  for  massing  which  the  new  method  lacks. 
The  systematic  grammar  lesson,  and  the  illustrative 
examples  which  precede  the  exercise,  help  materially  to 
intensify  and  deepen  the  impression  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed by  the  lesson  as  a  whole. 

The  new-fashioned  plan  also  seems  to  me  open  to 
criticism  on  the  ground  of  the  extremely  slight  degree 
of  effort  which   it  demands   of  the  pupil  in    r^^t  Newer 

those  parts  of  the  exercise  really  within  the    PianDe- 

.,,  ,  .,  ,  11,  1        mands  Less 

pupil  s  power,  while  on  the  other  hand  nearly    independent 

every  exercise  bristles  with  difficulties  whose    Effort. 

adequate  solution  is  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  nearly 

all  pupils  and  of  very  many  teachers.     The  existence 

of  these  difficulties  is  implicitly  recognised  in    ^et  in  parts 

the  publication  of  keys  for  teachers  to  accom-    it  is  too 

pany  books  of  the  new-fashioned  kind.     But    ^^^^*^^*- 

if  teachers  find  books  of  this  sort  so  difficult  as  to  feel 

compelled  to  resort  to  keys,  what  is  to  be  said  of  the 

adaptation  of  such  exercises  to  the  ordinary  pupil  ? 

Reverting  now  to  the  exercise  based  on  Caesar,  De 
Bello  Gallico,  iv.  19,  let  us  examine  somewhat  minutely 
the  nature  of  the  discipline  which  a  pupil  in  a  Concrete 
the  secondafy  school  is  likely  to  derive  from  mistration. 
the  attempt  to  put  it  into  Latin.  The  passage  is  an 
extremely  fair  sample  of  the  exercises  in  all  books  of 
this  type.  It  was  chosen  by  a  random  opening  of  the 
book. 

The  passage  for  translation  into  Latin  begins: 
"  Caesar  tarried  a  few  days  in  the  territory  of  the 
Sugambri."  Turning  to  the  Latin  on  which  this  pas- 
sage is  based,  the  pupil  will  easily  see  that  he  is  to  write : 
Ccesar  paiicos  dies  in  Sugambrorum  finibus  moratus  est^ 
or,  following  the  hint  of  the  foot-note,  moratus  alone. 
The  exercise  continues :  "  until  he  could  cut  down  their 
grain."      This   clause   in   its   EngHsh   is   unfortunately 


l64  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

inexact.  Taken  as  they  stand,  the  words  mean  that 
Caesar  waited  until  he  should  have  the  ability  to  cut 
down  the  grain,  i.  e,  procure  tools  and  command  the 
necessary  leisure  for  the  operation.  But  it  seems  much 
more  likely  that  the  author  means  that  Caesar  tarried 
for  the  purpose  of  cutting  down  the  grain.  If  we  adopt 
this  latter  view  of  the  meaning  of  the  clause,  the  Latin 
will  be  dum  eorum  frumenta  succideret ;  if  we  take  the 
words  literally,  the  Latin  will  be  dum  eorum  frumenta 
succidere  posset.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  pupil 
is  to  command  the  proper  form  of  expression  in  either 
case,  unless  he  has  received  some  formal  drill  on  em- 
ploying ^?/;;/-clauses  of  this  kind,  —  the  very  feature 
which  books  of  this  type  avoid  on  principle.  Thus, 
while  in  the  first  clause  of  the  sentence  before  us,  prac- 
tically no  effort  was  required  of  the  pupil  in  providing 
the  Latin  rendering,  in  the  second  clause  he  is  likely 
to  meet  with  difficulties  beyond  his  capacity.  Let  us 
pass  to  the  next  sentence  of  the  English :  *'  then  went 
to  the  country  of  the  Ubii,  whom  he  promised  to  free 
from  the  oppression  of  the  Suevi."  A  glance  at  the 
original  Latin  shows  the  pupil  at  once  that  ''  went  into 
the  country  of  the  Ubii  "  is  se  in  fines  Ubiorum  recepit. 
The  concluding  relative  clause,  however,  involves  a  diffi- 
culty, in  the  use  of  the  proper  mood,  tense,  and  subject 
accusative,  which  only  a  minute  and  sustained  study  of 
the  principles  of  indirect  discourse  will  enable  the  pupil 
to  meet  with  confidence  and  certainty.  The  Latin 
equivalent  for  the  relative  clause  is:  quos  se  obsidione 
Sueborum  liberaturum  esse  pollicitus  est.  But  to  my 
mind  there  seems  slight  probability  that  many  pupils 
can  be  counted  on  to  know  this  unless  they  have 
had  the  special  training  in  this  idiom  which  books  of 
the  type  under  consideration  expressly  evade  giving. 
The  next  paragraph  of  the  English  begins :  "•  Mean- 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  165 

while  the  latter  had  sent  messengers  in  all  directions." 
If  the  pupil's  memory  is  good  he  will  probably  begin  by 
writing  Hi  interea  and  continue  by  changing  the  nuntios 
in  omnes  partes  dimisisse  of  the  text  into  nuntios  hi 
omnes  partes  dimiserunt.  But  if  he  momentarily  forgets 
his  Latin  equivalent  for  "  meanw^hile,"  as  he  may  easily 
do,  or  the  Latin  equivalent  for  "  the  latter,"  as  the  aver- 
age pupil  is  likely  to  do,  his  only  recourse  is  to  omit 
this  part  of  the  Latin  sentence,  for  books  of  this  type 
give  no  English-Latin  vocabulary  to  supply  aid  at  such 
junctures.  The  pupil,  therefore,  is  likely  to  find  himself 
in  the  awkward  predicament  of  neither  knowing  nor 
being  able  to  learn  what  he  wants  to  know  and  is  will- 
ing to  devote  pains  to  discovering.  Such  a  lacuna  in 
the  present  instance  is  not  particularly  serious,  but  at 
times  it  may  easily  prove  so ;  for  often  the  form  of  other 
parts  of  the  sentence  may  depend  upon  these  missing 
elements. 

The  English  goes  on :  "  announcing  that  a  bridge 
was  being  built  over  the  Rhine  by  Caesar."  A  cross- 
reference  informs  the  pupil  that  no  word  for  "  announc- 
ing "  is  necessary  in  the  Latin ;  "  that  a  bridge  was 
being  built,"  however,  is  furnished  directly  by  the  origi- 
inal :  pontem  fieri.  But  how  many  pupils  will  without 
assistance  correctly  render  "  ever  the  Rhine "  ?  The 
Latin  idiom  is  regularly  in  Rkeno,  in  Danuvio,  etc. 

The  passage  ends :  "  and  urging  the  women  and 
children  to  flee  to  the  woods,"  which,  by  referring  to 
the  Caesar  passage,  the  pupil  will  without  difficulty 
(unless  he  has  forgotten  fugio  or  confounded  it  with 
fugd)  render :  uti  liberi  et  uxores  in  silvas  fugerent. 

Doubtless  in  this  same  book  could  be  found  other 
exercises  where  the  resemblance  between  the  original 
Latin  to  which  the  pupil  is  referred  and  the  English 
given  for  translation  into  Latin  is  even  closer  than  in 


1 66  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

the  exercise  above  examined.  Certainly  in  some  books 
of  this  type  the  resemblance  amounts  practically  to 
identity.  Thus,  from  another  book,  I  take  at  random 
the  following,  in  which  I  have  indicated  clause  by 
clause  the  original  Latin  (Caesar,  B.  G.  iv.  21)  on  which 
the  exercise  is  based,  and  which  by  a  few  extremely 
slight  changes  on  the  pupil's  part  is  transformed  into 
the  required  Latin :  ''  Caius  Volusenus  was  sent  for- 
ward with  a  galley  {Gaium  Volusenum  cum  navi  longa 
praemittii) ,  and  was  commanded  to  investigate  all  things 
and  to  return  as  soon  as  possible  {Huic  inandat,  ut,  ex- 
ploratis  omnibus  rebus,  ad  se  quam  primum  revertatur). 
He  returned  in  five  days,  and  announced  that  he  had 
not  dared  to  disembark  and  intrust  himself  to  barbarians 
(jiuinto  die  revertitur  .  .  .  renuntiat  .  .  .  navi  egredi 
ac  se  barbaris  committere  non  auderei).  Meanwhile, 
because  ambassadors  had  come  from  many  parts  of 
Britain  {Interim  .  .  ,  a  compluribus  insulae  civitatibus 
ad  eum  legati  veniuni)  and  had  promised  to  submit  to 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  people  {qui  polliceantur  .  .  . 
imperio  populi  Romani  obtemperare),  Commius,  King  of 
the  Atrebates,  was  sent  to  the  island  with  them  {cum 
eis  una  Commium  .  .  .  regem,  .  .  .  mittif)  to  urge  the 
Britons  to  continue  in  that  purpose  {hortatus,  tit  in  ea 
sententia  permanerent')  " 

Yet  in  the  passage  which  was  first  considered,  the  re- 
semblance is  so  close  that  any  pupil  of  average  ability 
ought  to  be  able  without  great  effort  to  do  all  that  prac- 
tically any  pupil  may  with  confidence  be  expected  to  do. 
If  we  eliminate  a  few  special  difficulties  likely  to  baffle 
most  pupils,  and  for  whose  solution  no  adequate  resources 
are  accessible,  the  few  changes  necessary  to  adapt  the 
phrases  and  sentences  of  the  original  Caesar  passage  to 
a  Latin  equivalent  of  the  English  exercise  are  exceed- 
ingly easy  to  make.     But  an  exercise  so  simple  as  this, 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  167 

it  seems  to  me,  cannot  be  tonic  and  strengthening, 
simply  because  it  demands  practically  no  effort  on  the 
pupil's  part.  Such  exercises  do  not  call  for  reflection, 
for  judgment,  or  for  memory;  they  simply  involve 
that  weakest  of  all  intellectual  processes,  —  mechanical 
imitation. 

The  absence  of  vocabularies  in  books  of  the  new 
type  also  seems  to  me  a  serious  defect.  Most  words 
needed  in  any  exercise  are,  to  be  sure,  sup-  Vocabu- 
plied  in  the  Latin  passage  on  which  the  Eng-  ^*^^' 
lish  exercise  is  based;  but  not  all.  Where  the  pupil 
is  unable  to  discover  the  needed  word  in  the  original 
Latin  and  cannot  recall  it  by  memory,  he  must  either 
resort  to  the  pernicious  expedient  of  hazarding  a  guess 
or  else  remain  in  ignorance.  The  special  vocabularies, 
too,  of  the  old-fashioned  books  seem  to  me  a  wise  fea- 
ture. These  special  lesson-vocabularies  are  given  to 
be  learned.  Personally  I  believe  it  not  merely  legitimate 
but  important  for  the  pupil  in  his  composition  work  to 
commit  regularly  to  memory  a  certain  number  of  the 
more  common  words  of  the  Latin  language.  A  re- 
luctance to  do  this  seems  to  me  to  be  dictated  by  the 
same  unwise  attitude  toward  the  exercise  of  the  mem- 
ory to  which  I  have  above  referred  (p.  55). 

Thus  far  I  have  been  criticising  what  seems  to  me 
the  defects  of  the  new-fashioned  way  of  teaching  Latin 
composition.     It  remains  to  examine  the  rea-  Reasons 
sons  which  are  advanced  in  its  favour.     These  ^'sed  in 
are  best  set  forth  by  Mr.  Collar  in  the  Preface  the  Kewer 
to  his  Practical  Lathi  Composition,  Boston,  ^^^• 
1887.     Mr.  Collar  owes  the  suggestion  of  his  method  to 
certain  passages   in   Ascham's   Sckolemaster,  in  which 
Ascham's   own   method   is   set    forth.     The   .   ^ 
method  is  this :  The  pupil  is  to  take  a  passage 
of  some  Latin  author,  and  master  it  in  detail  with  the 


1 68  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

teacher's  help  and  guidance.  Then  he  is  to  make  a  care- 
ful English  translation  of  the  same.  After  at  least  an 
hour's  pause,  he  is  to  re-translate  into  Latin  this  English 
version.  Ascham  incorrectly  speaks  of  this  method 
of  study  as  suggested  by  Cicero,  De  Oratore,  i.  But 
Cicero  goes  no  further  in  that  work  than  to  speak  with 
approval  of  the  practice  of  careful  written  translation 
from  a  foreign  language  into  one's  vernacular.  The 
question  of  writing  in  a  foreign  language  is  not  even 
remotely  suggested.  For  his  own  method,  Ascham 
says  that  he  knows  by  good  experience  that  with  ease 
and  pleasure  and  in  a  short  time  it  '*  workes  a  true  choice 
and  placing  of  words,  a  right  ordering  of  sentences,  an 
easie  understanding  of  the  tonge,  a  readiness  to  speak, 
a  facilitie  to  write,  a  true  judgment,  both  of  his  owne 
and  other  men's  doinges,  what  tonge  so  ever  he  doth 
use." 

I  shall  make  no  criticisms  upon  Ascham's  method ; 
I  shall  not  even  pause  to  urge  that  the  extravagant 
claims  made  for  it  by  its  author  may  properly  excite 
in  us  a  good  degree  of  distrust.  But  Mr.  Collar's 
method  involves  neither  of  Ascham's  fundamental  pro- 
cesses ;  it  does  not  include  a  careful  translation  by  the 
Mr  Collar'  P^pi^  i^^^o  English  to  start  with ;  it  does  not 
Method  not  include  the  effort  of  re-translating  this  Eng- 
Ascham's.  jj^j^^  ^^^^^  ^^  interval,  into  Latin.  It  is  an 
entirely  different  method,  in  which  the  pupil,  with  the 
text  before  him,  engages  in  a  feeble  imitation  of  the 
Latin  phrases  which  he  finds  in  the  original  passage. 

As  regards  Mr.  Collar's  own  method,  not  all  will  be 
able  to  assent  to  his  fundamental  proposition,  which  is 
Mr  Collar'  ^^^^  *  ^atin  writing  must  go  hand  in  hand  with 
First  As-  Latin  reading.  Nor  does  Mr.  Collar  himself 
sumption.  advance  any  reasons  for  this  position.  He 
assumes  it  as  though  a  self-evident  proposition.     The 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  1 69 

traditional  view  is  that  Latin  composition  should  go 
hand  in  hand  with  Latin  Grammar.  In  other  words, 
Mr.  Collar  thinks  that  Latin  composition  is  primarily 
helpful  as  illuminating  the  content  of  what  is  read ;  others 
regard  it  as  of  value  in  improving  and  increasing  the 
pupil's  mastery  of  the  linguistic  form  of  what  is  read, 
—  the  technique  of  the  language.  This  last  statement 
reduces  the  question  at  issue  to  its  very  lowest  terms, 
I  believe.  Beyond  it  we  can  hardly  go.  Is  Latin  com- 
position primarily  of  value  as  a  direct  aid  to  reading  in 
the  sense  which  Mr.  Collar  maintains,  and  is  it,  as  he 
asserts,  an  abandonment  of  common  sense  to  give  a 
boy  sentences  to  write  about  Balbus  when  he  is  reading 
about  Themistocles  and  Miltiades?  As  above  stated,  Mr. 
Collar  advances  no  reasons  for  his  attitude,  and  as  none 
occur  to  me,  I  shall  not  attempt  a  refutation  of  his  the- 
sis. I  think,  however,  that  it  needs  to  be  supported  by 
cogent  arguments  if  it  is  to  meet  with  acceptance  as  a 
valid  truth.  Mr.  Collar,  however,  does  advance  certain 
objections  to  the  old  way.  For  one  thing  he  asserts 
that  it  *'  is  '  a  very  perfite  waie  '  of  muddling  the  learner, 
because  it  breaks  all  the  threads  of  association.  He 
[the  pupil]  is  still  supposed  to  be  studying  Latin,  but 
the  subject  matter  of  his  study  and  his  mental  processes 
have  no  relation  to  those  from  which  he  has  been  di- 
verted. Certain  principles  are  enunciated,  certain  rules 
are  laid  down,  certain  words  are  given,  and  the  problem 
is  to  form  sentences  of  these  words  in  accordance  with 
the  rules."  But  how  all  this  muddles  the  learner,  I  fail 
to  see  in  theory,  just  as  I  have  never  been  able  to  ob- 
serve it  in  experience.  Mr.  Collar  declares  '*  it  effectu- 
ally breaks  all  the  threads  of  association."  This  is  but 
a  re-statement  in  other  terms  of  his  fundamental  position, 
namely,  that  Latin  composition  ought  always  to  go 
hand  in  hand  with  reading  (in  the  sense  that  it  ought  to 


I/O  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

deal  with  the  same  subject  matter).  As  above  noted, 
this  position  needs  support  before  we  can  accept  it  as 
sound.  Till  then  we  may  question  the  propriety  and 
necessity  of  the  existence  of  any  such  intimate  associa- 
tion between  the  subject  matter  of  the  author  read  and 
the  subject  matter  of  the  exercises  in  Latin  composition ; 
and,  unless  this  association  is  shown  to  be  something 
necessary  and  organic,  we  may  with  perfect  justice  deny 
that  there  is  any  breaking  of  threads  of  association; 
there  may  be  failure  to  bring  certain  threads  into  asso- 
ciation; but  if  they  do  not  naturally  and  necessarily 
belong  together,  then  there  has  been  no  act  of  severing. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  those  who  believe  that 
Latin  composition  is  of  value  primarily  as  the  hand- 
maiden of  Latin  grammar,  there  certainly  is  in  the  old 
method  of  teaching  Latin  composition  no  breaking  of 
any  threads  of  connection  that  ought  to  remain  associ- 
ated. On  the  other  hand,  the  very  associations  are 
preserved  which  ought  to  be  preserved.  The  study  of 
Latin  composition  deepens  and  strengthens  the  pupil's 
knowledge  of  syntax  and  forms.  If  a  minute,  accurate, 
broad,  and  certain  knowledge  of  Latin  grammar  is  of 
the  first  importance  for  the  Latin  pupil  of  the  second- 
ary school,  then  anything  that  promotes  the  attainment 
of  this  must  be  regarded  as  rational  and  legitimate.  If 
Latin  composition  promotes  this  end,  its  natural  and 
organic  associations  would  seem  to  be  with  grammar 
rather  than  directly  with  the  content  of  the  authors 
read  in  the  schools. 

Mr.  Collar's  position  seems  to  me  singularly  analogous 
to  the  hypothetical  attitude  of  a  teacher  of  music  who 
An  Analogy  should  urge  that  scales,  arpeggios,  octaves, 
from  Music,  trills,  thirds,  sixths,  etc.,  should  be  studied 
only  in  connection  with  regular  musical  compositions, 
and  should    protest   against   breaking   the    threads   of 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  1 71 

musical  association  by  practising  the  foregoing  ele- 
ments of  musical  technique  in  isolation.  The  tech- 
nique of  a  language  is  of  no  less  importance  than  the 
technique  of  the  fine  arts.  To  me  it  seems  analogous 
in  many  ways.  Minute  knowledge  of  the  structure, 
particularly  the  syntactical  and  stylistic  structure,  of  a 
language  is  as  indispensable  an  instrument  for  the 
proper  interpretation  of  its  literary  monuments,  as  is 
a  thorough  musical  technique  for  the  rendering  of  a 
sonata.  Neither  of  these,  however,  can  be  attained 
without  laborious  and  sustained  attention  to  the  ele- 
ments which  constitute  them.  Mr.  Collar  calls  the  pro- 
cess by  which  this  technical  familiarity  is  acquired  in 
the  traditional  way  of  studying  Latin  composition  "  me- 
chanical"; and  the  product  he  calls  "artificial."  Both 
these  allegations  are  to  a  certain  extent  just,  but  they 
are,  I  believe,  far  from  possessing  the  significance  which 
he  would  attach  to  them.  The  traditional  method  of 
teaching  Latin  composition  is  mechanical  in  r^^^  xra- 
iust  the  same  way  that  all  Latin  grammar  is    ditionai 

,        .      ,        -r     .         ,  1    .11  •  Method  not 

mechanical.  It  mvolves  repeated  illustration  unduiy  Me- 
of  principles  to  the  end  that  they  may  become  <=^a^cai. 
very  familiar,  —  so  familiar  as  to  be  always  subcon- 
sciously present  to  the  pupil's  mind.  Only  in  this  way 
can  the  whole  energy  of  the  pupil  be  devoted  to  the 
most  effective  interpretation  of  what  is  read,  just  as 
in  rendering  a  musical  composition  "the  technique  of 
the  instrument  must  be  so  thoroughly  mastered  by 
the  performer  that  all  his  energy  may  be  devoted  to  the 
musical  interpretation.  But  to  me  this  mechanical 
drill  seems  indispensable,  and  I  have  deplored  with 
increasing  anxiety  its  partial  disappearance  in  our 
schools  in  recent  years. 

So  the  product  of  the  traditional  method  of  teaching 
Latin  composition  is  also,  as  Mr.  Collar  urges,  to  a  cer- 


172  LATIN   COMPOSITION 

tain  extent  artificial.     But  the  same  is  true  of  many  of 

the  fundamental  elements  of  every  liberal  education.    For 

the  average  student  I  can  conceive  nothing- 
Ccirtfliii  .      . 

Umitations      more  artificial  than  the  study  of  geometry, 

T  "^  trigonometry,  analytics,  and   differential  cal- 

culus. In  the  sense  that  these  mathematical 
branches  deal  not  with  what  is  vital  and  of  permanent 
intellectual  worth  to  the  student,  they  are  artificial. 
Yet  I  assume  that  their  value  is  conceded  by  most 
students  of  education.  Despite  their  artificiality  they 
possess  proved  educative  efficiency.  So  I  think  it  is 
with  the  traditional  mode  of  teaching  Latin  composition. 
It  is  in  a  sense  artificial,  but  is  an  indispensable  dis- 
ciplinary element  of  the  Latin  course. 

I  am  entirely  at  one,  therefore,  with  Mr.  Collar  in  his 
contention  that  Latin  composition  is  not  an  end  in 
^     ^   ,  itself;   I  am  at  one  with  him  also  in  thinking 

Conclusion.         ....  .  .  ,      ,  , 

that  its  ulterior  purpose  is  to  aid  the  pupil 

in  reading  and  understanding  Latin  authors.  I  cannot 
agree  with  him,  however,  that  the  traditional  method 
fails  to  do  this,  and  my  dissent  is  based  primarily  upon 
extended  experience.  Undoubtedly  the  results  of  the 
traditional  method  are  not  as  large  as  the  teacher  would 
desire ;  but  we  must  not  forget  the  limitations  of  teach- 
ing. Few  of  us  ever  get  more  than  distant  glimpses  of 
our  ideals.  If  we  only  succeed  in  remaining  faithful  to 
them  in  our  hearts,  we  have  cause  for  satisfaction.  But 
I  have  not,  as  a  college  teacher,  annually  meeting  a 
hundred  or  more  new  freshmen,  been  able  to  discern 
that  those  trained  under  the  new  method  have  begun 
to  acquire  the  ability  to  write  even  simple  detached 
sentences  which  I  have  often  seen  realized  under  the 
traditional  method. 

Mr.  Collar's  method  also  lays  great  stress  upon  the 
principle  of  continuity,  i.  e.  of  having  the  pupil  write 


LATIN  COMPOSITION  1/3 

continuous  passages  instead  of  detached  sentences.    The 
experience  of  years  with  college  freshmen  has  convinced 
me  (I  might  almost  say,  has  proved  to  me)    possibility 
that   this  attempt   to   teach   pupils  to  write    of  Learning 
continuous  discourse   before  they  can  write    continuous 
detached  sentences  is  a  prodigious  mistake,    ^^^scourse. 
It  is  like  teaching  pupils  to  play  a  sonata  before  they 
can  play  a  musical  phrase.     The  attempt  is  too  ambi- 
tious, and  is,  I  believe,  doomed  to  failure.     Such  pupils 
not  only  do  not  learn  (in  the  schools)  to  wr\te  continu- 
ous discourse ;  they  do  not  even  learn  to  write  detached 
sentences ;   and  their  failure,  I  think,  should  not  excite 
surprise.     It  is  true,  as  often  urged,  that  no  one  ever 
learns   to  write   Latin  by   writing  detached  sentences. 
But,   on  the  other  hand,  no  one  ever  learns  to  write 
Latin  who  has  not  learned  to  write  detached 
sentences.      The   pupil   who  has  learned  to    must  Pre- 
write  simple  isolated  sentences  involving  the    ^jJi^t 
fundamental   logical    relations   expressed    in 
Latin,  has  secured  a  solid  basis  —  and  an  indispensable 
basis  —  for  more  ambitious  composition  in  the  Latin  lan- 
guage.    Possessing  the  art  of  expressing  in  phrase  and 
sentence  the  various  elements  of  Latin  thought,  he  may 
then  proceed  to  join  these   phrases  and  sentences  in 
continuous  paragraphs,  studying  the  best  methods  of 
bringing  successive  sentences  and  successive  paragraphs 
into  organic  relation.     But  this  is  a  function  of  college 
teaching.     I  should  rejoice  to  see  the  day  when  gradu- 
ates of  our  secondary  schools  brought  to  college  such 
a  capacity  to  write  simple  detached  sentences  as  would 
make  it  possible  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  spending  part 
of  the  freshman  year  in  acquiring  this  very  power. 

In  the  last  few  years  an  undoubted  reaction  in  favour 
of  the  traditional  method   has  manifested  itself.     This 


174  LATIN  COMPOSITION 

reaction  is  attested  not  so  much  by  the  welcome  ac- 
corded to  new  books  prepared  on  the  traditional  plan, 
A  Reaction  as  by  the  circumstance  that  books  of  the  new- 
KoticeaWe.  fashioned  sort  are  in  their  revised  editions 
so  remodelled  as  to  include  systematic  drill  in  syntax. 
This  is  conspicuously  true  of  Moulton  and  Collar's 
Preparatory  Latin  Composition,  which,  though  in  its 
first  edition  (1897)  constructed  on  the  strict  lines  of 
Mr.  Collar's  earlier  work  above  considered,  has  recently 
(1899)  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of"  Part  ii.  Sys- 
tematic Drill  in  Syntax.  75  pp."  Practically  the  same 
is  true  of  Daniell's  Latin  Composition  in  its  revised  edi- 
tion. Whether  these  tendencies  point  to  an  ultimate 
return  to  the  traditional  method  of  teaching  Latin  com- 
position, the  future  alone  can  determine. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LATIN    PBOSODY 

The  difficulties  of  reading  Latin  poetry  are  suffi- 
ciently familiar.  Extremely  few  pupils,  and  not  many 
teachers,  ever  learn  to  read  Latin  verse  with  that  keen 
consciousness  of  its  artistic  form  which  ought  to  attend 
the  reading  of  poetry.  The  main  causes  of  the  trouble 
are  two : 

a.  A  failure  to  apprehend  the  truly  quantitative  char- 
acter of  Latin  poetry ;  ^^  ^^^^ 

b.  An    inaccurate    pronunciation    of    the    mental 

Latin.  Difficulties. 

Let  us  consider  just  what  is  meant  when  we  say  that 
Latin  poetry  is  quantitative.     We  shall  best  understand 
the  significance  of  this  term  if  we   pause  a 
moment  to  consider  the   nature  of  English    meaitby 
poetry  and  the  general  relation  of  poetry  to    Quantitative 
the  spoken  language.  ^ 

English  poetry  is  based  on  accent,  i.  e.  on  a  regular 
succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  grouped 
by  twos  or  threes. 

The  versification  of 

This  is  the  forest  primeval,  the  murmuring  pines  and  the  hemlocks, 

depends  entirely  upon  this  artistic  alternation  of  stressed 
and  unstressed  syllables,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all 
ordinary  English  verse.  This  basis  of  English  poetry, 
moreover,  is  a  result  of  the  very  nature  of  the  EngHsh 


1 16  LA  TIN  PRO  SOD  Y 

language.  Like  all  languages  of  the  Teutonic  group, 
our  English  speech  is  strongly  stressed ;  we  pronounce 
our  words  with  an  energy  typical  of  the  race. 

Latin  verse,  on  the  other  hand,  like  Greek,  was  based 
on  quantity.  Recent  discussion,  it  is  true,  has  tended  to 
show  that  the  native  Latin  verse,  as  exemplified  by  the 
Saturnian  measure,  was  governed  by  stress ;  but  how- 
ever that  may  have  been,  it  is  certain  that,  from  the 
time  Greek  metres  began  to  be  introduced  at  Rome, 
—  from  the  time  of  Ennius,  —  Latin  verse  was  quantita- 
tive like  Greek ;  a  line  of  Latin  poetry  consisted  of 
an  orderly  and  harmonious  arrangement  of  long  and 
short  syllables,  i.  e,  of  syllables  which  it  took  a 
long  or  short  time  to  pronounce.  This  basis  of  Latin 
poetry  again,  as  in  the  case  of  English  poetry,  is 
strictly  in  conformity  with  the  character  of  the  spoken 
language.  For  Latin  apparently,  in  the  classical  period, 
was  not  a  strongly  stressed  language.  Had  it  been, 
it  is  quite  inconceivable  that  the  long  environing  vow- 
els should  not  have  been  shortened  in  such  words  as 
evitdbdtur  and  scores  of  others  like  it  in  which  the  Latin 
language  abounds.  6/.,  e.  g.^  a  Latin  inevltdbile  with 
English  inevitable.  Strong  stress  has  a  tendency  to 
reduce  every  long  pre-tonic  and  post-tonic  syllable  to 
a  short  one.  In  other  words,  strong  stress  is  absolutely 
inconsistent  with  the  quantitative  phenomena  of  the 
Latin  language. 

Now  it  is  precisely  this  slightly  stressed  character  of 

the  Latin  language  that  explains  to    us  the  character 

of  Latin   poetry.     Stress  was  so  weak  as  to 

Weakfy        constitute    an   inconspicuous    feature   of  the 

stressed        spoken  word.     Quantity,  on  the  other  hand. 

Language.     ^^^  prominent  in  the  spoken  word.     Hence 

quantity  and  not  stress  naturally  came  to  be  the  basis 

of  verse. 


LATIN  PROSODY  177 

Theoretically,  now,  this  quantitative  Latin  poetry  may 

seem  sufficiently  simple,  were  it  not  for  the  so-called  ictus, 

a  feature  to  which  our  traditional  prosody  uni- 

*  Ictus.' 
formly  gives  a  prominent  place.      What  was 

this  ictus?  It  is  usually  defined  as  stress  accent.  With  a 
single  exception  to  be  noted  below,  it  is  invariably  thus 
defined,  so  far  as  I  am  aware.  Yet  I  question  whether 
there  is  a  particle  of  legitimate  evidence,  internal  or  ex- 
ternal, in  support  of  this  view.  The  conception  of  ictus 
as  stress  accent  seems  to  me  to  have  its  foundation  solely 
in  the  practical  assumption  that  Latin  poetry  was,  like 
Enghsh  and  German  poetry,  really  accentual.  I  say 
'  practical  assumption.'  It  would,  of  course,  be  absurd 
to  maintain  for  a  moment  that  theoretically  the  quanti- 
tative character  of  Latin  verse  has  ever  been  denied. 
Yet  so  long  as  Latin  is  pronounced  with  absolute  dis- 
regard of  vowel  quantity,  as  it  necessarily  is  by  the 
so-called  English  method  of  pronunciation,  and  as  it 
habitually  is  in  Germany  to  my  certain  knowledge,  or 
with  disregard  of  syllabic  quantity,  as  it  usually  is  even 
where  the  Roman  pronunciation  is  nominally  followed, 
so  long  is  it  inevitable  that  any  theoretical  recogni- 
tion of  the  truly  quantitative  character  of  Latin  verse 
should  be  totally  clouded  by  the  impulse  toward  secur- 
ing a  rhythmical  effect  by  means  of  stress.  By  a  pro- 
nunciation which  yields  giro,  ingeniinn,  and  thousands 
more  of  the  same  sort,  on  the  one  hand,  and  filius,  vis, 
etc.,  on  the  other,  a  quantitative  verse  is  as  impossible  as 
would  be  an  accentual  verse  in  English,  were  we  to  mis- 
place the  regular  word-accent.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  were  we  to  accent  Longfellow's  line  as  follows : 

This  fs  the  fordst  primeval,  the  murmuring  pines, 

the  result  would  be  no  whit  worse  than  is  inevitably 
necessary  by  any  system  of  Latin  pronunciation  which 


1 78  LA  TIN  PRO  SOD  Y 

fails  scrupulously  to  observe  the  quantity  of  every  vowel 
and  of  every  syllable.  A  neglect  of  quantity  was  inevi- 
table under  the  English  pronunciation  of  Latin ;  it  is 
inevitable  under  the  pronunciation  of  Latin  current  in 
Germany.  Neglect  of  quantity  leaves  nothing  except 
accent  as  a  basis  for  a  metrical  effect,  and  naturally 
leads  to  an  accentual  reading  of  Latin  verse,  which 
brings  with  it  the  conception  of  ictus  as  a  stressed  sylla- 
ble. Yet  this  conception  seems  to  me  demonstrably 
false,  for  the  following  reasons : 

I.  So  far  as  we  know,  no  language  is  ever  forced  to 
an  artificial  pronunciation  when  adapted  to  the  service 
Reasons  for  ^f  poetry.  It  is  irrational  to  conceive  any 
Rejectingthe  g^ch  adaptation.  The  poet  simply  takes  the 
Theory  of  choicer  words  of  familiar  speech  and  employs 
'Ictus.'  them  in  their  ordinary  equivalence  with  their 

regular  pronunciation.  He  must  do  so.  For  his  appeal  is 
to  the  many,  not  to  a  select  handful  who  may  have  been 
initiated  into  the  secret  trick  of  his  versification ;  hence 
he  must  use  words  in  the  pronunciation  familiar  to  his 
auditors  or  readers.  Otherwise  he  can  make  no  appeal. 
His  art  consists,  on  the  mechanical  side  at  least,  in  ar- 
ranging words  in  such  a  way  that  the  poetic  form  is 
obvious  to  the  meanest  observer  who  knows  the  words 
by  ear  or  eye.  Can  any  poetry  be  cited  in  any  lan- 
guage of  which  this  is  not  true?  Is  it  then  not  absurd 
to  assume  that  in  Latin  poetic  form  consisted  in  employ- 
ing words  with  gratuitous  stress  accents  unknown  in  the 
ordinary  speech  ?  Can  we  conceive  of  an  atavis,  a  regi- 
biisy  a  Troja^y  a  cand^  or  a  thousand  other  equally  gro- 
tesque hermaphrodites  that  we  are  compelled  to  father 
by  this  theory?  And  is  it  credible  that  poetry  so  in- 
conceivably artificial  should  have  been  tolerated,  not  to 
say  admired,  by  such  sober-minded  persons  as  the 
Romans  ? 


LATIN  PROSODY  1 79 

2.  The  view  that  ictus  was  stress  is  to  be  rejected 
because  it  involves  the  assumption  of  a  second  basis  for 
Latin  verse.  We  have  already  noted  that  Latin  verse  is 
quantitative,  i.  e.  a  dactyl  is  a  long  time  followed  by  two 
short  times.  But  if  ictus  is  stress,  then  a  dactyl  is  a 
stressed  syllable  followed  by  two  unstressed  syllables. 
We  should  thus  get  two  principles  as  the  basis  of  Latin 
verse,  quantity  and  accent  (/.  e.  stress),  and  it  seems  to 
me  impossible  that  there  should  tmiformly  and  regularly 
have  been  two  principles  at  the  basis  of  Latin  verse  or 
any  other. 

3.  It  is  nowhere  hinted  or  implied  in  the  ancient 
writers  that  ictus  was  stress.  To  judge  from  the  promi- 
nence assigned  to  ictus  in  our  grammars  and  other 
works  on  prosody,  one  might  expect  to  find  that  the  word 
was  widely  current  as  a  technical  term  among  the  an- 
cients. Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Among  all  the 
systematic  discussions  of  prosody  found  in  the  Latin 
grammarians,  I  have  been  able  to  discover  no  definition 
of  the  term,  —  in  fact,  no  mention  of  it  as  a  technical 
term  of  prosody.  The  word  does  occur  a  few  times  in 
the  classical  period,  but  so  rarely  and  in  such  context 
that  there  is  no  justification  for  regarding  it  as  a  terminus 
technicus.  Thus  we  find  it  in  the  familiar  passage  of 
Horace,  ad  Pisones,  253  : 

unde  etiam  trimetris  accrescere  jussit 
Nomen  iambeis,  cum  senos  redderet  ictus 
Primus  ad  extremum  similis  sibi. 

More  frequently  we  find  ictus  in  this  signification 
combined  with  digitus^  pollex,  or  pes.  Thus  Horace, 
Carm.  IV  6,  36  pollicis  ictum ;  Quint.  Inst.  Or.  IX  4, 
51  pedum  et  digitorum  ictu  intervalla  signant;  Pliny, 
N.  H.  II  95,  96,  209  ad  ictum  modulantium  pedum. 
From  these  and  similar  instances  (the  total  number, 
however,  is  very  small),  the  natural   inference  is  that 


l8o  LATIN  PROSODY 

ictus  as  a  metrical  term  primarily  designated  taps  of  the 
feet  or  fingers,  and  was  then  transferred  to  denote  the 
rhythmical  beats  of  verse.  Certainly  there  is  no  evi- 
dence either  from  the  etymology  of  the  word  or  from  its 
use  in  any  citable  case  to  indicate  that  it  designated 
vocal  stress. 

Scarcely  more  support  of  the  stress  theory  can  be  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  the  words  arsis  and  thesis  as  em- 
ployed in  the  systematic  treatises  on  Latin  prosody 
prepared  by  the  ancient  grammarians.  These  writers 
give  us  abundant  testimony,  but  yet  an  examination 
of  their  utterances  fails  to  reveal  any  definite  coherent 
doctrine.  The  witnesses  not  only  contradict  each  other ; 
they  even  contradict  themselves. 

I  have  already  given  three  reasons  why  it  seems  to 
me  erroneous  to  regard  ictus  as  stress:  i.  Because  it 
involves  the  importation  of  a  stupendous  artificiahty 
into  the  reading  of  verse.  2.  Because  it  involves  a 
dual  basis  for  versification,  —  stress  as  well  as  quantity. 

3.  Because  the  view  finds  no  support  in  any  ancient 
testimony.     To   these  three  reasons  I  wish  to    add   as 

4.  There  are  excellent  grounds  for  believing  that  ictus 
was  something  else  than  stress.  If  Latin  poetry  was 
quantitative,  as  its  internal  structure  and  all  external  evi- 
dence seem  to  show,  then  a  dactyl  was  a  long  time  fol- 
lowed by  two  short  times,  and  a  trochee  a  long  time 
followed  by  one  short  time,  absolutely  without  any  other 
parasitic  accretion.  When,  now,  we  come  to  use  dactyls 
by  the  line,  one  part  of  every  foot  will  inevitably  be  felt 
as  prominent,  namely,  the  long  syllable.  The  relative 
amount  of  time  given  the  long  syllable  of  every  dactyl 
naturally  brings  that  long  syllable  into  consciousness, 
and  especially  must  it  have  done  so  to  the  minds  of  the 
Romans,  whose  nice  quantitative  sense  is  proved  by  the 
very  fact  that  they  made   quantity  the  basis   of  their 


LA  TIN  PRO  SOD  V  1 8 1 

versification.     Yet  the  long  of  the  dactyl  has  no  stress. 
It  is  natural  for  us  to  stress  it,  us  whose  only  concep- 
tion of  verse  is  accented  verse.     But  in   so 
doing   I   believe  we  are  simply  transferring  ^^  ^^^  q^. 

to  Latin  verse  our  own  inherited  verse-sense,  titative 
_     ,    _         .  ,  .  Prominence. 

I  define  ictus,  therefore,  not   as  stress,  nor 

as  accent,  but  simply  as  the  quantitative  prominence  in- 
herent in  a  long  syllable.  This  definition  applies  prima- 
rily only  to  the  four  fundamental  feet  —  the  dactyl,  the 
anapaest,  the  trochee,  and  the  iambus.  It  does  not 
apply  to  the  spondee,  for  example,  when  substituted  for 
the  dactyl  in  dactylic  verse.  In  such  cases  the  Jirs^  long 
of  the  spondee  is  felt  as  the  quantitatively  prominent 
thing  in  the  foot,  even  though  the  second  syllable  of  the 
spondee  is  also  long.  In  dactylic  verse,  the  dactylic 
character  and  feeling  so  dominate  the  line  that  any 
spondee  naturally  takes  on  a  dactylic  character  and  is 
felt  to  be  quantitatively  prominent  in  its  Jirst  syllable, 
just  as  in  the  case  of  the  dactyl  itself.  So  in  iambic 
measures,  where  the  tribrach  or  dactyl  is  substituted 
for  the  iambus,  the  quantitative  prominence  inherent  in 
the  long  syllable  of  the  iambus  is  felt  as  transferred  to 
the  two  final  shorts  of  the  tribrach  or  the  dactyl. 

This  conception  of  thesis  or  ictus  receives  no  little 
support  from  the  positive  testimonies  of  the  Roman 
grammarians.  These  writers  in  their  defini-  support  for 
tions  of  arsis  and  thesis  repeatedly  call  atten-  *^^  "^*®''^- 
tion  in  unambiguous  phrase  to  the  essentially  quantitative 
character  of  these  concepts.  In  this,  their  agreement  is 
conspicuous. 

To   those  who  may  cherish   a  scepticism   as  to  the 
tangible  reality  of  '  quantitative  prominence,*   Empirical 
I  would  only  say  that  that  phrase  need  ap-   Consider- 
pear  shadowy  to  no  one  who  will  actually  read   *"°"^' 
one  thousand  lines  of  Latin  aloud  wt//i  absolute  fidelity 


1 82  LATIN  PROSODY 

to  vocalic  and  syllabic  quantity.  My  own  revolt  against 
the  traditional  view  of  ictus  has  been  purely  and  solely 
empirical.  It  was  simply  because  by  faithful  practice  in 
accurate  reading  my  ear  quickly  grew  sensitive  to  quan- 
titative differences,  that  I  was  forced  to  believe  that,  as 
quantity  was  the  basis  of  Latin  verse,  so  ictus  was  only 
quantitative  prominence.  This  conclusion,  I  say,  was 
first  forced  upon  me  empirically,  and  the  theoretical 
formulation  was  entirely  subsequent  to,  and  solely  the 
result  of,  my  actual  oral  experience  in  reading  Latin. 
No  one,  in  my  judgment,  can  approach  this  subject  in 
a  candid  spirit  who  has  not  first  taken  the  pains  to 
acquire  the  habit  of  exact  pronunciation  of  Latin  vowels 
and  syllables.  Even  in  this  country,  where  we  have 
nominally  adopted  the  quantitative  pronunciation  of 
Latin,  we  have  still  much  to  learn  in  this  matter.  Our 
shortcomings  are  so  pronounced,  and  bear  so  directly 
upon  the  theoretical  aspect  of  the  question  at  issue,  that 
I  shall  here  venture  to  recapitulate  some  of  them. 

First,  we  habitually  neglect  vowel  quantity.  One 
cause  of  this  is  the  vehement  stress  which  (in  accord- 
ance with  our  English-speaking  instinct)  we  regularly 
Points  in  P^^  upon  the  accented  syllable.  The  word 
whicii  our      evltdbatur.  for  example,  contains  four  succes- 

Pronnnciation     .        ,  ,  tt  ,    •         •      .         • 

of  Latin  is  sive  long  vowels.  Yet  m  nmety-nme  cases 
Defective.  q^j|.  ^f  ^  hundred,  the  penultimate  syllable  is 
so  strongly  stressed  that  the  first  three  vowels  are  pro- 
nounced short.  In  Latin  poetry  the  result  of  such 
pronunciation  is  to  wreck  the  quantitative  character 
of  the  verse  as  effectively  as  if  in  English  we  were  to 
misplace  the  accents  on  successive  syllables.  How 
much  poetic  form  would  appear  in  Milton's  opening 
line  of  Paradise  Lost,  were  we  to  pronounce  *  6f  man's 
first  disobedience,'  for  instance?  Besides  destroying 
vowel  quantity  as  a  result  of  over-stressing  the  accented 


LATIN  PROSODY  1 83 

syllable,  we  habitually  neglect  it  In  hundreds  of  other 
instances  where  there  Is  no  such  disturbing  factor.  By 
some  strange  fatality  the  -is  of  the  genitive  singular  Is 
commonly  pronounced  -is,  while  the  -is  of  the  ablative 
plural  as  regularly  Is  heard  as  -is ;  while  the  number  of 
such  pronunciations  as  pater,  dger,  nisi,  quod,  quibus,  in- 
genium  is  simply  legion.  No  one  who  pronounces  Latin 
in  that  way  can  expect  to  feel  the  quantitative  charac- 
ter of  a  Latin  verse,  and  Is  In  no  proper  frame  of  mind 
to  give  the  quantitative  theory  dispassionate  considera- 
tion; for  one  or  two  false  quantities  destroy  as  com- 
pletely the  quantitative  character  of  a  verse  of  Latin 
poetry  as  would  one  or  two  misplaced  accents  any 
English  verse. 

Even  more  serious  than  our  neglect  of  vowel  quantity 
is  our  neglect  of  syllabic  quantity.  The  shipwreck  re- 
sulting from  neglect  of  vowel  quantity  occurs  Neglect  of 
chiefly  in  open  syllables,  i.  e.  In  syllables  whose  SyUaWc 
vowel  is  followed  by  a  single  consonant,  which  ^^ 
always  belongs  to  the  following  vowel,  thus  leaving  the 
preceding  syllable  open.  In  such  syllables  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowel  Is  always  identical  with  the  quantity  of 
the  syllable,  so  that  a  false  vowel  quantity  Involves  the 
quantity  of  the  syllable  as  well.  In  closed  syllables,  on 
the  other  hand  {i.  e.  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant), 
an  error  in  vowel  quantity  does  not  affect  the  quantity 
of  the  syllable.  I  may  pronounce  vendo  or  vendo.  In 
either  case  the  syllable  will  be  long.  Hence  in  closed 
syllables  an  error  in  vowel  quantity  does  not  destroy 
the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  and  so  does  not  Interrupt 
the  quantitative  character  of  a  Latin  verse.  But  the 
syllable  must  be  actually  closed  in  pronunciation ;  else 
where  the  vowel  is  short,  the  syllable  will  be  left  open, 
and  will  be  metrically  short,  destroying  the  verse.  It 
is  precisely  here  that  we  err  so  frequently  and  so  fatally 


1 84  LATIN  PROSODY 

in  our  reading  of  Latin  verse.  We  do  not  close  the 
syllables  that  ought  to  be  closed  and  were  closed  by 
the  Romans.  The  commonest  class  of  words  where 
we  commit  this  error  are  those  containing  a  geminated 
consonant  —  words  of  the  type  of  ges-serunt,  ac-cipio, 
at-tigeraty  ter-rarumy  ap-parabat,  an-norum,  ad-diderat, 
Jiam-mariun,  excel-lentidy  ag-gerimus.  These  words  we 
habitually  pronounce  in  prose  and  verse  alike,  as  ge- 
serunt,  d-cipioy  d-tigeraty  te-rarunty  d-parabaty  d-noruifiy 
d-didityfld-metiSy  exce-le7itiay  d-gerimiis.  Words  of  this 
type  are  extremely  frequent  in  Latin.  I  have  counted 
forty-five  in  the  first  hundred  lines  of  Virgil's  ^neidy 
i.  e.  the  pronunciation  described  destroys  the  quanti- 
tative character  of  the  Latin  verse  at  forty-five  distinct 
points,  often  twice  in  the  same  verse. 

Nor  is  this  all.  In  other  combinations  in  the  interior 
of  words  we  are  often  guilty  of  quite  as  serious  errors. 
In  English,  besides  muta  cum  liquiday  there  are  many 
other  consonant  combinations  with  which  in  stressed 
syllables  we  show  a  regular  tendency  to  begin  the  syl- 
lable. This  is  especially  true  of  the  combinations  spy 
sc{k)y  sty  squ;  also  scly  scr,  str.  This  tendency  of  our 
vernacular  speech  naturally  affects  our  pronunciation 
of  Latin  words  in  which  these  combinations  occur. 
The  s  of  such  combinations  properly  belongs  with  the 
preceding  vowel,  in  order  that  the  preceding  syllable 
may  be  closed  and  so  made  phonetically  long ;  yet  we 
frequently  (almost  invariably,  according  to  my  observa- 
tion) join  the  s  with  the  consonants  of  the  tonic  syllable. 
I  refer  to  such  pronunciations  as  d-sp^r{r)ima,  i-stiusy 
tempe-stdtibuSy  corii-scdbaty  mt-sciieraty  magtstrorum, 
d-scUpiaSy  d-scripsit,  qui-squiliae .  My  own  students 
often  exhibit  a  tendency  to  combine  even  cty  //,  ps  with  a 
following  accented  vowel,  and  produce  short  syllables 
in  such  words  as  voiu-ptdtey  d-spe-ctoriimy  t-pstus.    Where 


LATIN  PROSODY  185 

the  accent  rests  on  the  vowel  immediately  preceding 
these  combinations,  the  liability  to  error  is  very  sHght. 

There  are  yet  other  cases  in  which  error  is  frequent, 
if  not  habitual.  Unstressed  syllables  whose  vowel  is 
followed  by  r-h  any  consonant  are  particularly  liable 
to  be  made  phonetically  short  in  those  portions  of  the 
country  where  the  r  is  neglected.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where 
pd(r)-tdrum^  te{r) -minor um,  etc.,  represent  the  prevail- 
ing utterance.  The  combination  of  m  or  n  also  with  a 
following  explosive  in  unstressed  syllables  frequently  is 
so  treated  as  to  shorten  syllables  phonetically  long.  The 
process  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is  not  yet  clear 
to  me.  Observation,  however,  has  taught  me  that  in 
such  words  as  imperator,  intendo  the  first  syllable  is  fre- 
quently made  short ;  whether  by  omission  of  the  nasal, 
by  pronouncing  a  short  nasalized  vowel,  or  by  a  short 
nasalis  sonans  (n),  I  do  not  undertake  to  say.  The 
fact,  I  believe,  is  beyond  question.  A  careful  and  dis- 
tinct enunciation  of  the  nasal,  however,  will  obviate  all 
difficulty  in  cases  of  this  sort. 

There  is  only  one  other  class  of  cases  to  which  I  shall 
call  attention,  namely,  the  unconscious  liaison  of  final  s 
after  a  short  vowel  with  the  initial  consonant  of  the 
following  word.  Where  the  following  word  begins  with 
s,  /,  c,  t,  V,  m,  ny  f,  etc.y  and  where  the  connection  of 
sense  is  close,  this  liaison  is  in  my  experience  frequent. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  it  should  be,  for  we  habitually 
join  a  final  s  of  an  unstressed  syllable  in  our  own 
speech  with  a  following  J,  c,  t.  Examples  in  Latin  are : 
urbi  sportdy  capi  scanem,  urbi  svici.  A  case  that  puz- 
zled me  for  a  time  was  Juv.  Ill  53  carus  erit  Verri,  as 
read  by  a  student.  The  fourth  syllable  sounded  short 
to  my  ear,  and  it  was  only  after  repeated  readings  that 
I  discovered  that  the   reader  was  really  dividing :  carus 


1 86  LATIN  PROSODY 

en-tVerri.  I  do  not  say  that  this  liaison  is  invariable. 
It  is  certainly  frequent,  and,  where  it  occurs,  must  viti- 
ate the  quantitative  effect  of  the  verse. 

These  common  errors  in  reading  Latin  must  be 
clearly  understood,  if  they  are  to  be  remedied.  It  is 
by  no  means  an  impossible  matter  to  acquire  an  exact 
quantitative  pronunciation.  It  takes  time  and  pains 
and  considerable  oral  practice.  I  do  not  believe  that 
it  requires  a  particularly  sensitive  ear.  By  practice 
in  rigidly  exact  reading,  the  quantitative  sense  is  not 
slow  in  coming;  but  without  that  exactness  it  cannot 
come  and  cannot  be  expected  to  come.  He  who  has 
once  developed  the  quantitative  sense  will,  I  am  con- 
fident, feel  no  need  of  any  artificial  stress. 

In    this    connection   the  words   of  Madvig   are  well 

worth   pondering  {Latin   Grammar,  §  498,  N.) :    "  We 

Madvig's      should  also  guard  against  the  opinion  which 

View.  jg  generally  current;  namely,  that  the  an- 
cients accentuated  the  long  syllable  (in  the  arsis)  and 
distinguished  in  this  way  the  movement  of  the  verse 
(by  a  so-called  verse-accent,  ictus  metriais),  and  conse- 
quently often  accentuated  the  words  in  verse  quite 
otherwise  than  in  prose  (^  g.  Arma  virumque  cano 
Trojae  qui  primus  ab  oris ;  ttaliam  fato  profugus  Lavi- 
naque  venit),  which  is  impossible ;  for  the  verse  depends 
on  a  certain  prescribed  order  and  form  of  movement 
being  distinguishable,  when  the  words  are  correctly  pro- 
nounced. In  our  own  verses  we  do  not  accentuate  the 
syllables /^r  the  sake  of  the  verse,  but  the  syllables  which 
are  perceptibly  distinguished  by  the  accentuation  in 
prose  form  verse  by  being  arranged  to  succeed  each 
other  in  this  way.  In  Latin  and  Greek  (where  even  in 
prose  pronunciation  the  accent  was  quite  subordinate, 
and  is  never  named  in  speaking  of  rhetorical  euphony, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  difference  of  quantity  was 


LATIN  PROSODY  1 87 

distinctly  and  strongly  marked),  the  verse  was  audibly 
distinguished  by  this  very  alternation  of  the  long  and 
short  syllables."  So  far  my  assent  with  Madvig  is  com- 
plete. He  goes  on :  ''  But  as  it  is  not  possible  for  us, 
either  in  prose  or  in  verse,  to  pronounce  the  words 
according  to  the  quantity  in  such  a  way  as  the  ancients 
did,  we  cannot  recite  their  poetry  correctly,  but  are 
forced  in  the  delivery  to  give  a  certain  stress  of  voice  to 
the  arsis,  and  thus  make  their  verses  somewhat  resemble 
ours.  It  should,  however,  be  understood,  that  it  was 
different  with  the  ancients  themselves  (until  the  last 
century  of  their  history,  when  the  pronunciation  itself 
underwent  modifications)."  These  words  of  Madvig 
were  written  in  1847  —  over  half  a  century  ago.  At 
that  time  it  is  not  strange  that  he  should  have  denied 
the  possibility  of  our  reading  Latin  verse  quantitatively 
with  substantial  accuracy.  But  before  the  end  of  his 
life,  it  is  likely  that  Madvig  relinquished  this  part  of  his 
earlier  opinion. 

As  regards  word-accent  in  the  reading  of  Latin  verse, 
I  believe  that  it  retained  its  full  value ;  for  as  I  have 
maintained  that  in  poetry  words  are  used  word- 
with  their  ordinary  prose  values,  and  are  Accent, 
pronounced  without  addition  of  foreign  elements,  so  I 
believe  that  they  were  pronounced  without  subtraction 
of  any  of  their  elements.  But  we  have  already  seen 
that  the  Latin  accent  was  slight.  It  was  precisely  that 
fact  which  led  the  Romans  of  the  classical  period  to 
make  quantity  the  basis  of  their  verse.  Assuming, 
now,  that  the  word-accent  was  very  slight,  what  wonder 
that,  with  quantity  predominant  in  the  verse  and  in  the 
Roman  consciousness,  such  slight  word-accent  as  existed 
was  felt  as  no  intrusion?  An  analogous  situation  re- 
veals itself  in  our  English  verse.  Our  verse  is  primarily 
accentual,  and  yet  each  syllable  has  its  quantity,  and 


1 88  LATIN  PROSODY 

shorts  and  longs  mingle  harmlessly  with  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables.  Why  should  not  the  reverse  have 
occurred  in  Latin  just  as  simply  and  just  as  naturally? 

To  sum  up,  then :  Latin  poetry  is  to  be  read  exactly 
like  Latin  prose.  Latin  was  primarily  a  quantitative 
Summary,  language  in  the  classical  period  and  is  to  be 
read  quantitatively.  The  Latin  word-accent 
was  relatively  slight  as  compared  with  that  of  our 
strongly  stressed  English  speech,  and  is  therefore  to 
be  carefully  subordinated  to  quantity  both  in  prose  and 
poetry.  Ictus  was  not  a  metrical  term  current  among 
the  Romans,  nor  was  there  anything  corresponding  to 
it  in  the  quantitative  poetry  of  the  Greeks.  The  term  is 
purely  modern.  We  first  imported  the  conception  of 
stress  from  our  modern  speech  into  the  quantitative 
poetry  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  then  imported 
the  term  *  ictus '  to  cover  it.  But  just  as  the  conception 
of  artificial  stress  in  Latin  poetry  is  false,  so  the  term 
*  ictus '  is  superfluous.  Oecrt?  was  employed  by  the  an- 
cient Greek  writers  on  metric  to  designate  the  prom- 
inent part  of  every  fundamental  foot,  and  is  still  entirely 
adequate  to  cover  that  conception. 

It  remains  to  say  a  word  with  regard  to  elision,  the 
rule  for  which,  as  stated  in  our  Latin  grammars,  is  in 

substance  as  follows :   "  A  final  vowel,  a  final 
Elision.        ,.   ,    ,  .  ,  ,.  ,    . 

diphthong,  or  m  with  a  preceding  vowel,  is 

regularly  elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel 
or  hy  The  exact  nature  of  this  elision,  as  observed  by 
the  ancients  in  reading  Latin  verse,  is  still  very  uncer- 
tain. The  Romans  may  have  slurred  the  words  together 
in  some  way,  or  they  may  have  omitted  the  elided  part 
entirely.  In  practice,  the  latter  procedure  is  probably 
the  wiser  one  to  follow.^ 

1  The  writer  has  frequently  been  favoured  by  prominent  advocates 
of  'slurring/  with  practical  illustrations  of  the  method  of  reading  recom- 


LATIN  PROSODY  1 89 

In  actual  reading  it  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  the 
four  following  fundamental  principles: 

I.  Observe  the  quantity  of  each  syllable  some  Rules 
scrupulously,  taking  care  to  observe  the  proper  ^o*"  Reading, 
division  of  the  syllables,  joining  the  first  of  two  succes- 
sive consonants  with  the  preceding  vowel,  and  so  closing 
the  syllable. 

2.  Make  the  word-accent  light;  subordinate  it  care- 
fully to  quantity. 

3.  Endeavour  to  cultivate  the  quantitative  sense,  i.  e. 
to  feel  the  verse  as  consisting  of  a  succession  of  long 
and  short  intervals. 

4.  Do  not  attempt  to  give  special  expression  to  the 
*  ictus '  in  any  way.  The  '  ictus '  (which  is  only  quan- 
titative prominence)  will  take  care  of  itself,  if  the  sylla- 
bles are  properly  pronounced. 

The  conception  of  *  ictus '  here  advocated  is  not  as 
yet  generally  accepted  by  classical  scholars ;  but  teach- 
ers are  nevertheless  urged  to  put  it  to  the  test  of  expe- 
rience. A  fuller  exposition  of  the  view  may  be  found 
in  a  paper  by  the  author  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Philology,  vol.  xix.  p.  316  fif.,  parts  of  which  have 
been  quoted  in  this  chapter.  In  vol.  xx.  p.  198  ff.  of 
the  same  periodical  will  be  found  some  criticisms  of  my 
views,  and  at  p.  413  ff.  will  be  found  my  reply.  But 
whatever  be  the  view  with   regard  to   *  ictus '   no  one 


mended  by  them ;  but  these  experiments  have  invariably  seemed  to 
result  in  producing  more  syllables  than  the  verse  demands.  For  exam- 
ple, in  a  verse  like 

Vix  a-dejo  ag-n5|vit, 

the  second  foot  has  inevitably  taken  the  form  \^ ,  where  slurring 

was  attempted,  while  in  a  verse  like 

Tan-dem  ]  cor-ri-pu|it  seise  atque  i-ni|ml-ca  re|fu-git, 

the  fourth  foot,  by  slurring,  has  become  ^ \j  kj  \j- 


190  LATIN  PROSODY 

disputes  the  soundness  of  what  has  above  been  urged 
with  regard  to  observing  scrupulously  the  quantity  of 
each  vowel  and  of  each  syllable,  and  it  is  predicted  that 
a  faithful  observance  of  quantity  will  bring  an  empirical 
justification  of  the  soundness  of  what  has  been  set  forth 
concerning  the  nature  of '  ictus.' 

If  there  be  one  argument  in  favour  of  retaining  the 
Roman  pronunciation  of  Latin,  it  is  that  by  that  pro- 
nunciation  faithfully  observed   one   may  re- 
Relation  to  ,  .,  .       .         ,  .    -  . 

the  Roman      produce  the  quantitative  character  of  ancient 

^^JSftto/'^""  ^^^^^  poetry.  But  it  is  only  by  faithful 
observance  of  the  quantity  of  every  vowel 
and  every  syllable  that  this  can  be  done.  So  long  as 
the  Roman  pronunciation  is  retained,  this  accuracy  ought 
to  be  striven  for.  But  even  when  it  is  attained,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  achievement  supplies  a  sufficient 
justification  for  maintaining  the  Roman  pronunciation 
of  Latin.  Beautiful  as  is  the  correct  reading  of  Latin 
poetry,  I  cannot  feel  that  it  is  worth  the  price  which 
we  must  pay  for  it,  particularly  when  one  reflects  upon 
the  extremely  small  number  of  those  who  ever  ac- 
quire a  pronunciation  of  even  approximate  quantitative 
accuracy. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SOME  BCESOEIiLANEOUS  POINTS 

Roman  History  —  Comparative  Philology  —  Etymology  —  Illus- 
trative Material :  Books  —  Maps  —  Photographs  —  Casts. 

a.  Roman  History.  Much  excellent  work  in  this  sub- 
ject is  undoubtedly  done  in  the  schools.  Nor  is  there 
any  lack  of  good  text-books  in  the  field.  Roman 
Yet  the  knowledge  of  Roman  history  brought  History, 
to  college  by  the  average  freshman  is  something  lament- 
ably meagre  and  defective.  Students  are  often  ignorant 
of  the  commonest  facts  of  Roman  history.  I  g^^jg^^g  ^g 
have  frequently  asked  my  freshmen  such  ele-    ignorant  of 

i-  c\x7x.  ^1    J-       ->  '     this  Field. 

mentary  questions  as  'Who  was  Clodms? 
*  What  was  the  issue  that  brought  on  the  Punic  Wars  ? ' 
only  to  meet  with  blank  faces  at  the  benches  before  me. 
Nor  are  the  chronological  conceptions  of  students  for  this 
period  of  history  what  they  ought  to  be.  I  was  once 
giving  a  course  of  lectures  to  juniors  and  seniors  in  one 
of  the  historic  New  England  colleges  now  well  along  in 
its  second  century.  My  subject  was  the  topography 
and  monuments  of  ancient  Rome.  As  my  auditors  were 
all  men  of  classical  training  and  classical  interests,  I 
naturally  took  certain  things  for  granted.  In  this  spirit, 
I  naturally  referred  with  confidence  to  such  historic 
characters  as  Augustus,  the  Flavian  emperors,  the 
Antonines,  Constantine,  etc.  Yet  it  took  me  but  a  short 
time  to  see  that  something  was  wrong.  By  the  eyes  of 
my  students,  I  could  see  that  I  was  not  striking  home. 


192  SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS 

When  I  came  to  quiz  them  on  the  matter  which  I  had 
presented  with  all  the  clearness  in  my  power,  I  found 
they  had  gained  no  adequate  conception  of  the  element- 
ary survey  of  the  successive  architectural  eras  of  Rome 
which  I  had  endeavoured  to  characterize.  In  the 
endeavour  to  secure  a  irov  arSi,  I  put  the  question, 
'When  did  Augustus  reign?'  '500  A.  D.'  was  the 
response  from  the  first  man  I  asked.  As  this  reply 
failed  to  meet  approval,  another  student  volunteered  an 
estimate.  '  1500  A.  D.'  was  the  answer,  as  I  turned  to 
him.  On  another  occasion  I  was  lecturing  on  the  his- 
tory of  Roman  Hterature.  My  theme  was  Roman 
tragedy  in  the  days  of  the  Republic.  My  opening  sen- 
tence ran  something  like  this :  *  Roman  tragedy  was  a 
close  imitation  of  Greek  tragedy,  that  literary  glory  of 
the  Periclean  Age.'  Then,  in  accordance  with  my  some- 
what informal  manner  of  lecturing,  I  paused  and  put, 
to  the  first  student  whose  eye  I  caught,  the  question : 
*  What  was  this  Periclean  Age  and  when  was  it?  '  The 
student  was  a  young  woman  in  her  senior  year,  who  was 
specializing  in  Greek  and  was  writing  a  thesis  in  that 
department.  My  query,  however,  was  too  much  for  her. 
She  could  only  say  that  she  had  heard  of  the  Age  of 
Pericles,  but  was  unable  to  locate  or  characterize  it. 
These  two  cases  are,  of  course,  extreme  ones,  yet  a  long 
experience  in  three  great  American  universities  per- 
suades me  that  they  are  somewhat  typical.  Ignorance 
is  not  often  so  pronounced  as  in  the  instances  just  cited, 
and,  when  it  is,  it  is  probably  confined  to  a  small  minority 
of  a  class.  Yet  classes,  as  a  whole,  certainly  cannot  be 
trusted  to  know  the  fundamental  events  and  tendencies 
of  Roman  antiquity  which  the  instructor  of  college  fresh- 
men ought  to  be  able  to  take  for  granted  as  a  permanent 
possession  of  all  his  students. 

With  institutions,  political,  religious,  and  social,  the 


SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS  193 

student  is  almost  sure  to  be  even  less  familiar.  He  has 
either  no  conception  or  a  false  one  with  regard  to  the 
different  elements  of  the  Roman  poHtical  organization. 
Senate,  consul,  aedile,  quaestor,  censor,  praetor,  tribune, 
impermm,  comitia  centuriata^  comitia  tributa^  etc.y  —  all 
these  are  apt  to  be  but  empty  names.  The  notion  that 
these  magistrates  and  bodies  were  a  part  of  the  working 
machinery  of  the  Roman  state  seems  to  have  eluded  the 
bulk  of  the  students  who  come  to  college.  Much  less 
are  such  students  able  to  give  any  precise  statements  of 
magisterial  or  legislative  function  and  prerogative. 

I  am,  therefore,  compelled  to  feel  that  the  work  of 
the  secondary  school  in  Roman  history  falls  far  short 
of  what  ought  to  be  realized.  Nor  do  I  speak  primarily 
as  a  college  teacher,  to  whom  ignorance  of  the  funda- 
mental facts  and  tendencies  of  Roman  antiquity  cannot 
fail  to  be  a  serious  handicap  in  every  college  course  in 
Latin.  I  speak  quite  as  much  from  a  sense  of  what  the 
Latin  pupils  of  the  secondary  school  —  to  say  nothing  of 
any  others  —  ought,  as  pupils  of  Roman  antiquity,  to 
know,  and  to  know  well,  whether  they  go  to  college  or 
not.  A  minute  and  detailed  knowledge  will  not  of 
course  be  expected  ;  it  will  not  be  possible  either.  But 
some  things  are  possible,  are  achieved  in  -^r^^r. 
England,  France,  and  Germany,  and  ought  to  to  i)e  Ex- 
be  not  only  expected  but  actually  realized  in  ^^®*^®^- 
the  United  States.     These  things  are : 

1.  A  clear  conception  of  the  different  periods  of 
Roman  history,  particularly  with  reference  to  constitu- 
tional development,  territorial  expansion,  and 

internal  social  and  economic  problems.    These 
periods    are,    in    the    main,    sharply   differentiated    and 
strongly  characterized.     They  are  also  relatively  few  in 
number. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  great  characters  of  Roman 

13 


194  SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS 

history.     Fabricius,  Curius,    Camillus,    Decius,   Cincin- 

natus,    Scipio,     Marcellus,    Pompey,    Cicero, 
Great  Men.        „  i,  /-, 

Caesar,  —  even  the  last   two  of  these,  —  are 

unfortunately  often  nothing  but  famiHar  names  —  some 

of  them  are  not  even  that  —  to  the  mind  of  the  average 

student.     I  think  it  is  not  too  much  to  demand  that  the 

pupil  know  their  personality  and  carry  in  his  mind  some 

record  of  their  positive  achievements. 

3.  Some  knowledge  of  dates.     I  am  well  aware  that 
a  mere  parrot-like  capacity  to  reel  off  dates  is  no  evi- 
dence of  a  knowledge  of  history,  and  that  a 

Clironology.  . 

very  ordinary  intellect  is  frequently  capable 

of  memorizing  such  details  without  appreciating  the 
facts  with  which  they  are  connected.  Yet  in  spite  of 
this  possible  (not  frequent)  perversion  of  study,  there 
are  many  dates  that  every  student  ought  to  know.  It  is 
a  safe  statement  to  say  that  if  an  event  is  important,  its 
date  is  important.  The  founding  of  Rome,  the  expul- 
sion of  the  kings,  the  great  landmarks  in  the  strife 
between  the  orders,  the  Cornelian  law,  the  Hortensian 
law,  the  Decemvirate,  the  Licinian  Rogations,  the  war 
with  Pyrrhus,  the  battle  of  Zama,  the  destruction  of 
Corinth,  the  Social  War,  the  strife  of  Marius  and  Sulla, 
the  assassination  of  Caesar,  the  battle  of  Actium,  — 
these  and  the  like  are  great  events  of  whose  chrono- 
logical location  in  the  course  of  Roman  history  no  pupil 
should  be  ignorant.  When  a  student  tells  me  that 
Cicero  was  born  3CX)  B.  c,  I  cannot  accept  as  valid  his 
plea  that  he  never  had  the  faculty  for  learning  dates.  I 
see  at  once  that  he  has  never  had  any  adequate  con- 
ception of  Roman  history. 

4.  Lastly,  I  feel  that  the  secondary  student  of  Roman 

history  ought  to  have  some  orderly  and  sys- 
Institutions.  .,,,  r     ^  .       .       . 

tematic    knowledge    of    Roman    mstitutions. 

I  do  not,  of  course,  presume  that  he  shall  be  familiar 


SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS  195 

with  every  detail  of  the  working  of  the  Roman  constitu- 
tion and  with  the  functions  and  prerogatives  of  the 
scores  and  hundreds  of  minor  officials.  But  I  do  claim 
that  he  ought  at  least  to  understand  the  Roman  consti- 
tution in  its  broad  Hues.  He  ought  to  know  what  the 
Senate,  and  magistrates,  and  assemblies  were,  what 
powers  they  had,  how  they  did  their  work.  He  ought 
to  understand  also  the  imperfections  of  the  constitution, 
and  how  and  why  it  proved  inadequate  to  the  needs  of 
the  later  Republic. 

Is  the  foregoing  too  much  to  ask?  I  cannot  think  it 
is,  or  that  secondary  teachers  will  judge  my  demands 
excessive.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain.  Nothing 
approaching  it  is  now  realized  in  our  secondary  schools 
as  a  body,  or  in  any  considerable  proportion  of  them. 
Furthermore,  could  any  such  knowledge  be  assumed 
in  the  graduates  of  secondary  schools,  it  would  mean  a 
veritable  revolution  in  the  possibilities  of  college  teach- 
ing, though  the  improvement  is  urged  not  in  the  interest 
of  the  colleges  but  of  the  schools  themselves.  (  .x^A^S^ 

b.    Comparative  Philology.    There  is  an  undoubted  fas-  j-/  tJU  L^^ 
cination  to  most  pupils  in  tracing  the  origin  of  words,  '^''''"«^^.^^^^«<l^ 
their  development  of  meaning,  and  their  cog-    comparative 
nates  in  other  languages.     There   is   also   a    ^'^^loio&y- 
valuable  historical  training  imparted  in  the  conception 
of  the  various  Indo-European  languages    as  originally 
members  of  a  single  group,  as  descended  in  fact  from 
a  common  parent.     Yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  ad- 
visable   in   the    secondary    school  to  press  very  far  in 
pursuit  of  these  matters.     Fascinating  as  is  the  com- 
parison of  such  words  as  Greek  Kaphla,  Lat.  cor,  English 
heart,    German   Herz ;    Greek    (6)8oVt-o?,    Lat.    dens  ; 
English    too{n)th ;  German   Zahn ;   yet   the   study   of 
such   equations   is    not   properly  the   function    to    any 
extent   of    either   Greek    or   Latin   instruction   in   the 


196  SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS 

secondary  school.  The  function  of  such  instruction  is 
to  convey  to  the  pupil  first  a  knowledge  of  theiangt 
next  of  the  literature,  and  lastly,  so  far  as  possible, 
of  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
For  none  of  these  purposes  is  a  knowledge  of  Latin  in 
its  relations  to  the  Indo-European  parent-speech  or 
to  the  other  Indo-European  languages  indispensable. 
It  can  do  no  harm  now  and  then  to  show  the  corre- 
spondence in  several  languages  of  cognate  words,  and  to 
point  out  the  historical  significance  of  such  correspond- 
ence ;  but  to  make  much  of  this  seems  to  me  a  serious 
mistake,  for  the  reason  that  such  work  inevitably  diverts 
attention  from  the  essential  purposes  of  Latin  study  in 
the  school.  And  so  when  I  see  young  teachers,  fresh 
perhaps  from  the  enthusiasm  of  university  studies,  in- 
culcating in  secondary  pupils  the  subtleties  of  .Grimm's 
law,  of  Grassmann's  and  Verner's  laws,  of  Ablaut  and 
nasalis  sonmts,  I  cannot  help  deploring  their  misdirected 
energy.  These  philological  matters  are  important  in 
their  place,  but  I  cannot  believe  that  that  ^place  is  the 
secondary  school. 

c.  Etymology.  The  tracing  of  words  to  their  origins 
within  the  limits  of  the  Latin  language  itself  is  an  exer- 
cise of  much  more  importance, —  one,  in  fact, 
which  cannot  be  neglected.  To  a  large  ex- 
tent, of  course,  the  origin  of  words  is  obvious.  The 
pupil  does  not  need  to  be  told  that  amabilis  comes 
from  am.0,  or  potentia  from  potens.  With  regard  to  other 
words  help  is  necessary,  and  it  is  cause  for  regret  that 
many  of  the  manuals  to  which  the  pupil  naturally  refers 
for  information  on  these  points  are  so  inadequate  and 
so  antiquated.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  standard 
lexicons  and  dictionaries  of  Latin.  All  of  them  are 
culpably  behind  the  times.  The  same  is  true  of  most 
of  the  "  word-lists  "  which  often  accompany  editions  of 


SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS  1 9/ 

school  classics.  The  vocabularies  of  our  standard  edi- 
tions of  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Virgil  have  in  recent  years 
been  greatly  improved,  and  are  now  fairly  representative 
of  our  present  knowledge  in  the  field  of  etymology. 

d.   Illustrative  Material.     This   I   shall   treat  under 
the    successive   headings    of   Books,   Maps,    luustrative 
Photographs,  Casts.  Material. 

Books.   The  number  of  books  needed  for  reference 
in   the   library  of  the  secondary  school   is  not  great; 
yet   some    books   are    practically   indispens- 
able.    I    shall    undertake   to   enumerate   the 
most  important. 

Lexicons.   In   the    way   of   lexicons   Harper's   Latin 

Dictionary   (American  Book  Co.,  New  York)  is,  with 

all  its  deficiencies,  still  our  best  Latin  Diction- 

T-1  •  11  11-11  1     lexicons, 

ary.      ihis  work  does  not  mark  hidden  vowel 

quantities ;  but  the  vowels  are  carefully  marked  in  an 

abridgment  of  the  same  book :   C.  T.  Lewis,  Elementary 

Latin  Dictionary.     New  York,  American  Book  Co. 

Grammars.   Besides  the   Latin   grammar   used   as  a 

basis  for   the   ordinary  class-room    work,  it  is  well  to 

have   in   the   school  library   one   or  two   of 
,       ,  ,  ,  %.       .       _  Grammars. 

the  larger  and  completer  Latin  Lrrammars. 

Gildersleeve's  Latin  Grammar  (New  York,  University 
Publishing  Co.)  edited  by  Lodge  is  unexcelled  for  this 
purpose  Bennett's  Appendix  to  Bennett's  Latin  Gram- 
mar (Boston,  Allyn  &  Bacon)  will  also  be  found  a  use- 
ful work  on  points  of  pronunciation,  orthography,  hidden 
quantity,  origin  of  inflectional  forms,  growth  of  syntacti- 
cal constructions,  etc. 

For  synonyms  there  is  the  work  of  Doederlein,  Hand- 
book of  Latin  Synonyms.  Andover,  Mass.  W.  F. 
Draper;  also  Shumway,  A  Hand-book  of  Latin  Syno- 
nyms.     Boston,    Ginn  &   Co.      The   lexicons   also  by 


198  SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS 

their  definitions  give  valuable  assistance  in  distinguish- 
ing differences  of  meaning  in  synonymous  words. 

Antiquities.  Under  this  head,  the  best  single  book  is 
the  recently  revised  edition  of  William  Smith's 

^"^  ^'  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 
London,  John  Murray;  Boston,  Little,  Brown,  &  Co. 
2  vols.     Other  works  are  : 

cy^^       Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiquities. 
^  New  York,  American  Book  Co. 

Seyffert.     Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquities.     London,  S. 
Sonnenschein  &  Co. ;  New  York,  Macmillan  Co. 
^-      Rich.     A    Dictionary   of    Roman   and    Greek    Antiquities, 
cj-    ^  London  and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 

All  of  these  are  dictionaries  arranged  on  the  alpha- 
betical plan.     Books  of  a  different  arrangement  are : 

Ramsay.    A  Manual  of  Roman  Antiquities.    London,  Griffin ; 
jjfcfew  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
^,y^     Go)».     Companion  to  School  Classics.     London,  Macmillan 
^^L^n         &^Co.  "       -----        -       - 


(Ltd.)  ;  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Co. 


For  the  narrower  field  of  private  life  may  be  noted : 

(Pr^ton  &  Dodge.N  The  Private  Life  of  the  Romans.    Boston, 

Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 
^     Inge.     Society  in  Rome  under  the  Caesars.     London,  John 

Murray ;  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
y     Becker.     Gallus,  or  Roman  Scenes  in  the  Time  of  Augustus. 

London  and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 

There  are   also  two  publications  of  plates  which  are 
well  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  school  library : 

\J-^^  Baumeister,  A.     Bilder  aus  dem  griechischen  und  romischen 
}>^\j         Altertum,  fiir  Schiiler  zusammengestellt.     Munich,  R.  Olden- 
bourg. 
or    Schreiber,  Th.     Atlas   of    Classical   Antiquities.      London, 
"^^  (^Macmillan  &  Co.   (Ltd.);  New  York,  Macmillan  Co. 


SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS  199 

Topography  and  Arc hceo logy.   Recent  years  have  been 
rich   in  works  on   the   topography   and    re-    Topography 
mains   of    Rome   and    Pompeii.      The   best    andArciuB- 
,       -  ology. 

books  are: 

->  Middleton,  J.  H.  The  Remains  of  Ancient  Rome.  London, 
A.  &  C.  Black ;  New  York,  Macmillan. 

^  Lanciani,  R.  The  Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient 
Rome.  London,  Macmillan  &  Co.  (Ltd.)  ;  Boston,  Houghton, 
Mifflin,  &  Co. 

>  Mau,  A.  Pompeii :  Its  Life  and  Art.  London,  Macmillan 
&  Co.  (Ltd.)  ;  New  York,  Macmillan  Co. 

Geography.  In  the  field  of  geography,  the  most  conven- 
ient books  are  William  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and^^ 

Roman  Geography.     London,  John  Murray: 

-r,      .         T  -..1      -o  or-  1  .1         Geography. 

Boston,  Little,  Brown,  &  Co.    2  vols. ;  or  the 

same  author's  Classical  Dictionary  of  Biography,  Myth- 
ology, and  Geography.  London,  John  Murray.  This 
last  is  an  abbreviation  and  combination  of  two  of  Dr. 
Smith's  larger  dictionaries.  These,  however,  are  some- 
what out  of  date.  Recent  and  of  the  very  highest 
authority  is  Kiepert's  Ancient  Geography.  A  useful 
little  manual  is  Tozer's  (Classical  (jeography.  London, 
Macmillan  &  Co.  (Ltd.) ;  New  York,  American  Book 
Co.  The  best  classical  atlas  is  that  of  Kiepert.  London, 
Williams  &  Norgate  ;  Boston,  Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

History.   Every  school  library  should  con- 
tain the  standard  Roman  histories: 

Mommsen.  The  History  of  Rome.  London,  Macmillan  & 
Co.  (Ltd.)  ;  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     4  vols. 

Merivale.  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire.  London 
and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.     8  vols. 

Mommsen.  The  Provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire  from  Caesar 
to  Diocletian.  London,  Macmillan  &  Co.  (Ltd.)  ;  New  York, 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons.    2  vols. 


200  SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS 

Gibbon.  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Lon- 
don, Methuen  &  Co.  7  vols. ;  New  York,  Macmillan  Co.  4  vols. 

Besides  these  standard  works,  a  number  of  volumes  in 
the  Epoch  Series  are  of  very  great  value,  presenting,  as 
they  do,  the  chief  facts  and  features  of  important  eras 
in  condensed  form.     Especially  to  be  noted  are :       ^\  0. 

Ihne,  Early  Rome;  Merivale,  The  Roman  Triumvirates; 
Capes,  The  Early  Empire ;  also  Capes,  The  Age  of  the  Anto- 
nines.  All  of  these  are  published  in  London  and  New  York  by 
Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 

Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology  (London,  John  Murray ;  Boston,  Little, 
Brown,  &  Co.  3  vols.),  though  now  somewhat  antiquated, 
is  still  an  excellent  work. 

Smith's  Classical  Dictionary  (Biography,  Mythology, 
Geography),  an  abbreviation  of  the  larger  dictionaries, 
is  also  entirely  adequate  for  all  ordinary  purposes  of 
reference. 

Roman  Literature.  Not  much  is  needed  here,  and 
this  little  is  fortunately  accessible  in  the  excellent 
Roman  manual  of  J.  W.  Mackail :   Latin  Literature. 

Literature.  London,  John  Murray;  New  York,  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.  Excellent  notices  of  the  Latin  writers 
may  also  be  found  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology,  or  in  the  shorter 
Classical  Dictionary  (Biography,  Mythology,  and  Geog- 
raphy) of  the  same  author. 

Mythology.  The  fullest  works  of  reference  are  either 
the  larger  work  of  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Mythology.  Ro^^an  Biography  and  Mythology,  or  the 
smaller  Classical  Dictionary  of  the  same 
author  already  noted.  Of  smaller  works  may  be  men- 
tioned : 


SOME  MISCELLANEOUS  POINTS  201 

Murray,  A.  S.  Manual  of  Mythology.  New  York,  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons. 

Harrington  and  Tolman.  Greek  and  Roman  Mythology. 
Boston,  Benjamin  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

Bibliographical.  A  suggestive  little  book  is  Harring- 
ton, Helps  to  the  Intelligent  Study  of  College  Prepar- 
atory Latin.  Boston;  Ginn  &  Co.  Useful,  BibUograpM- 
too,  is  the  List  of  Books  Recommended  for  <^  ^^^p^- 
a  High  School  Classical  Library  by  a  Committee  of  the 
Michigan  Schoolmasters'  Club.  Ann  Arbor,  Sheehan 
&  Co.  Much  more,  however,  is  recommended  in  this 
list  tiian  it  ia^eally  necessary  for  any  high  school  to  buy. 

^APS.  A  rewgood  maps  hung  upon  the  wall  or 
suspended  from  rollers  are  a  practical  necessity  for 
effective  Latin  teaching.  One  needs  a  map 
of  the  ancient  world,  also  special  maps  of  at 
least  Italy,  Greece,  and  Gaul;  if  possible,  also  a  good 
topographical  map  of  Rome  and  vicinity.  The  fore- 
going are  quite  ample  for  all  ordinary  needs,  but  they 
ought  to  be  in  constant  requisition.  The  best  maps  are 
those  prepared  by  Kiepert  and  published  by  D.  Rei- 
mer,  Berlin.  They  cost  about  $7.00  each,  and  can  be 
ordered  through  any  importer  of  foreign  books. 

Photographs.     These  are  now  fortunately  so  cheap 
as  to  be  within  the   reach  of  all  schools.     A  judicious 
selection  of  photographs  of  famous  classical 
localities,  famous  buildings,  or  famous  works 
of  art  does  much  to  brighten  the  school-room  and  to 
add  reality  to  the  subject  matter  of  the  authors  read. 

Casts.     So,  too,  a  few  casts  of  the  famous  portrait 

busts  of  distinguished    Romans  are  often   a 

Casts, 
desirable  addition   to  the   class-room.      Like 

photographs,   they   are   effective   in   lending   vividness 

to  a  study  of  the  past. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  PEEPABATION  OF  THE  TEACHEB 

REFERENCES. 

Russell,  J.  E.  German  Higher  Schools.  New  York  and  London : 
Longmans,  Green,  &  Co.  1899.  Chapter  xviii.  "  The  Professional 
Training  of  Teachers." 

Bolton,  F.  E.  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany.  New 
York  :  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1900.  London  :  Edward  Arnold.  Chapter  ii. 
pp.  55-119. 

Thus  far  no  mention  has  been  made  of  what  must  be 
admitted  by  all  to  be  the  most  vital  element  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  secondary  school,  namely,  the  teacher. 
I  shall  make  no  attempt  to  sketch  the  requisites  in  the 
way  of  character  and  of  personality  which  must  be 
sought  in  the  efficient  teacher,  whether  of  Latin  or 
any  other  branch.  Nor  shall  I  call  attention  to  the 
importance  of  that  capacity  to  give  instruction  which 
seems  to  me  inborn  and  as  impossible  to  impart  as 
health  or  personal  beauty.  I  shall  speak  only  of  the 
academic  training  desirable  for  the  man  or  woman  who 
presumably  possesses  these  first  requisites  of  character, 
personality,  and  talent  for  teaching. 

In   the  preparation  of  our  teachers  is   to   be  found 

perhaps  the  weakest  point  of  American  edu- 
Our  American       ,•  a        •  ^-      ^-  c  i.t.  c 

Training  of     cation.     An  mvestigation  of  the  causes  tor 

d3^"         this  might  be  interesting  and  profitable,  but 

it  is  out  of  place  here.     The  fact,  I  believe, 

is    incontestable    that   we    are    far    behind    the    great 


PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER  203 

nations  of  Europe  —  Germany,  France,  England,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  even  Russia  — 
in  the  loftiness  of  our  conception  of  the  teacher's  func- 
tion and  in  the  seriousness  of  our  preparation  for  the 
teacher's  duties. 

A  better  sentiment  is  now  manifesting  itself,  and  it  is 
to  the  credit  of  our  best  educational  leaders  that  they 
are  keenly  conscious  of  our  shortcomings  and  are  strain- 
ing every  energy  to  remedy  them.  Yet  the  task  is 
so  large,  and  its  importance  as  yet  so  far  from  being 
generally  appreciated,  that  it  certainly  cannot  be  super- 
fluous to  call  attention  here  to  our  great  deficiencies  in 
the  training  of  our  teachers  of  Latin. 

Let  us  look  a  moment  at  the  preparation  of  the  Latin 

teacher  of  the  German  secondary  schools,  the  Gymna- 

sien.     In  the  first  place,  such  a  teacher  has     preparation 

studied  Latin  for  nine  years  and  Greek  for     ©^  German 
^  ^,  .  ,       Teachers. 

SIX  years  at  some    Gymnasitiin.     Ihis  work 

extends  ordinarily  from  the  ninth  or  tenth  to  the 
eighteenth  or  nineteenth  year.  During  this  q^^^^  ^f 
period  the  pupil  reads,  with  a  thorough-  study  in  the 
ness  unknown  to  us  in  America,  substantially  y™^^^""- 
the  following  authors  and  works :  Nepos,  Csesar  {Gallic 
War,  i-vii),  Ovid  {Metamorphoses,  selections),  Virgil, 
(^JSneid),  Cicero  (seven  Orations  and  selections  from 
the  Letters),  'Livy  (i,  xxi,  xxii),  Horace  {Odes,  i-iv, 
selections;  Epodes,  Satires,  Epistles,  selections), Tacitus 
{Annals,  i,  ii ;  Histories,  i;  Germanid).  Besides  this 
there  is  an  extensive  amount  of  private  reading  in  Sal- 
lust,  Livy,  Curtius,  Cicero,  and  other  authors.  The 
language,  too,  receives  constant  attention  not  only  in 
the  minute  study  of  the  grammar,  but  also  by  way  of 
writing  Latin.  In  this  latter  exercise  a  wonderful  facil- 
ity is  gained  by  the  students  of  the  higher  classes  of  the 
Gymnasien.     I  have  witnessed  students  in  the  highest 


204  PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER 

class  translate  two  solid  pages  of  continuous  German 
into  Latin  within  thirty  minutes.  This  was  an  oral 
exercise,  and  the  German  was  not  closely  modelled  on 
any  original  Latin,  as  is  often  customary  with  us.  I  re- 
member well  the  fine  disdain  of  the  rector  of  this  par- 
ticular school,  when  I  asked  him  whether  this  was  a 
review  lesson. 

With  these  attainments  in  Latin  and  with  correspond- 
ing attainments  in  Greek  as  the  result  of  a  six  years' 
study  of  that  subject,  the  student  comes  to  the  univer- 
sity at  the  age  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  to  speciaHze 
more  closely  in  his  chosen  field.  Yet  up  to  this  time,  he 
has  not  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  classics;  these 
have  been  the  chief  and  most  exacting  studies  of  the 
gymnasial  course,  but  mathematics  are  pursued  through 
quadratic  equations,  solid  geometry,  and  plane  trigo- 
nometry; much  attention  is  paid  to  the  German  lan- 
guage, literature,  and  history;  French  is  pursued  for 
several  years;  natural  science,  including  natural  his- 
tory, physics,  and  chemistry,  is  pursued  two  hours  a 
week  for  the  entire  nine  years ;  writing,  drawing,  sing- 
ing, and  gymnastics  are  also  included;  English  and 
Hebrew  are  elective.  Such  is  the  liberal  foundation  of 
the  young  man  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  who  leaves  the 
Gyinnasmm  for  the  University,  and  who,  I  assume,  is 
intending  to  fit  himself  for  the  career  of  a  teacher  of 
University  Latin  in  German  secondary  schools.  Arrived 
study.  ^^  ^^  university,  he  devotes  himself  almost 

exclusively  to  the  study  of  the  classical  languages,  litera- 
tures, and  civilizations.  He  takes  courses  in  historical 
Latin  grammar,  in  historical  Latin  syntax,  on  Roman 
literature,  Roman  history,  epigraphy,  private  antiquities, 
political  antiquities,  archaeology,  metric,  palaeography, 
Roman  comedy,  etc. ;  he  becomes  the  member  of  one  of 
the  seminaries  and  devotes  days  to  preparing  a  paper 


PREPARATION  OF  THE    TEACHER  205 

on  perhaps  only  twenty  lines  of  a  Satire  of  Horace,  en- 
deavouring to  constitute  the  text  with  scientific  preci- 
sion and  to  interpret  the  passage,  in  the  light  of  all 
accessible  information,  in  the  most  thorough  and  ac- 
curate fashion.  His  courses  in  Greek  are  similar  in 
character.  Besides  this,  he  must  take  some  work  in 
philosophy,  ancient  or  modern,  and  in  the  science  of 
education. 

The  minimum  period  of  residence  for  those  prepar- 
ing to  become  teachers  is  legally  three  years,  but  in 
practice  the  period  is  more  often  four  years,  ^^^  Exami- 
or  even  five.  When  he  has  finished  his  nation  for 
period  of  study,  the  candidate  presents  him- 
self for  the  trying  ordeal  of  the  teachers'  examination, 
without  passing  which  no  one  can  secure  a  license  to 
teach. 

This  examination  involves  (i)  a  searching  test  of  the 
candidate's  knowledge  of  the  classics;  (2)  a  knowledge 
of  philosophy  (psychology,  logic,  ethics)  and  the  science 
of  education;  (3)  a  familiarity  with  the  German  lan- 
guage and  literature;  (4)  a  knowledge  of  the  doctrines 
of  his  religion. 

"The  examination  is  both  oral  and  written.  The 
written  test  comes  first,  and  consists  in  the  writing  of 
elaborate  essays  on  themes  assigned  by  the  commission. 
One  theme  is  on  some  topic  in  philosophy  or  pedagogy, 
and  is  designed  to  test  the  candidate's  knowledge  of  the 
philosophical  basis  of  pedagogy  and  didactics,  and  of 
the  development  of  educational  thought.  ...  If  the 
applicant  has  published  something  of  note,  as,  for  in- 
stance, a  dissertation  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  phi- 
losophy, it  may  be  offered  as  a  substitute  for  one  of  the 
essays.  Essays  that  deal  with  a  classical  language  must 
be  written  in  Latin ;  with  the  modern  languages,  in 
French  or  English,  as  the  case  may  be.  .  .  .  Six  weeks 


206  PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER 

are  allowed  for  the  preparation  of  each  essay,  and  the 
commission  is  empowered  to  grant  an  extension  of  six 
weeks,  —  making  twelve  weeks  in  all,  if  necessary,  on 
the  subject."  ^ 

This  written  examination,  if  satisfactory,  is  followed 
by  an  oral  examination  before  a  specially  appointed 
examiner.  If  both  the  written  and  oral  tests  are  suc- 
cessfully met,  the  candidate  receives  a  certificate  author- 
izing him  to  teach. 

"  The  intending  teacher,  even  with  his  certificate  in 
his  hand,  has  yet  other  gauntlets  to  run.  The  certificate 
TiieProi)e-  of  itself  confers  no  right  to  teach.  Some- 
jahre.  thing  more  than  general  culture  and  minute 

scholarship  is  required.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  Germany 
owes  more  to  the  pedagogical  training  of  her  teachers 
than  to  any  other  factor  in  their  preparation.  It  is  the 
professional  spirit,  which  every  German  teacher  feels, 
that  differentiates  him  from  his  species  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  this  spirit  is  the  result  chiefly  of  his  pedagogi- 
cal training." 2  Accordingly  the  German  candidate  is 
obliged  to  spend  two  additional  years  of  apprenticeship 
even  after  he  has  passed  the  rigid  teachers*  examination. 
The  first  of  these  two  years  is  spent  in  a  Seminarmmy 
where  the  intending  teacher  receives  special  advanced 
instruction  in  the  practical  problems  of  the  secondary 
school.  The  second  year  is  devoted  to  actual  instruc- 
tion (only  seven  or  eight  hours  a  week)  under  the 
supervision  of  some  experienced  teacher. 

Such  is  the  preparation  of  the  German  teacher  who  is 
to  go  into  the  secondary  school  and  give  instruction  in 
the  beginning  Latin  work,  in  Nepos,  Caesar,  Cicero, 
Virgil,  etc.     Contrast  with  this  rigid  and  exacting  course 


1  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools,  p.  359/. 
*  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools,  p.  363. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER  20/ 

of  training  the  conditions  prevalent  in  our  own  country  ! 
In  the  first  place,  teaching  with  us  does  not 
rank  as  a  profession.     As  a  result,  the  body    offered  by 
of   teachers    is    recruited    largely   from    the    ^^]^^^ 

o    J  Conoitions. 

ranks  of  recent  college  graduates,  who  resort 
to  teaching  as  a  makeshift  while  they  are  accumulating 
the  means  to  pursue  their  special  preparation  for  medi- 
cine, the  law,  or  something  else ;  or  from  young  women 
who  turn  to  teaching  as  a  respectable  occupation  during 
the  period  they  spend  between  the  completion  of  their 
education  and  marriage.  Even  among  the  small  number 
of  those  who  enter  the  vocation  of  Latin  teaching  deliber- 
ately with  the  intention  of  making  it  their  life  work,  few 
are  at  all  adequately  equipped  for  their  tasks.  Many  of 
them  have  never  been  to  college  at  all.  Some  few  have 
had  one  or  two  years  of  undergraduate  study  of  Latin. 
Fewer  have  made  it  a  serious  study  throughout  their 
course,  while  the  number  of  those  who  have  had  a  year 
or  two  of  graduate  study  is  so  small  as  to  constitute 
practically  a  vanishing  quantity  in  the  great  sea  of 
poorly  equipped  teachers  of  the  subject. 

Without  good  teachers,  it  must  be  impossible  to  have 
good  teaching,  and  we  shall  never  have  good  teachers 
of  Latin  or  anything  else  (except  as  exceptions  to  the 
prevailing  mediocrity)  until  we  set  as  a  first 
requisite  a  lofty  standard  of  knowledge  of  ©f  one's  s^ub- 
the  subject  to  be  tauM.     Force  of  character,   jecttheprime 

^  vx.  J  •        1  -11  1      Requisite. 

magnetic  personality,  pedagogic  skill,  are  all 
necessary  in  their  way,  but  the  man  or  woman  who  pos- 
sesses all  of  these  and  who  is  not  saturated  with  the 
most  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  he  or  she  has 
to  teach  is  incapable  of  making  the  teacher  that  we 
have  a  right  to  demand  in  our  secondary  schools,  not 
merely  in  Latin  but  in  other  branches  as  well.  In  my 
judgment,  the  greatest  defect  in  American  education  to- 


208  PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER 

day  is  the  prevailing  superficiality  in  the  attainments  of 
American  teachers.  They  do  not  know  their  subjects. 
At  least  they  do  not  know  Latin  as  well  as  they  ought 
in  order  to  teach  it  even  with  a  moderate  degree  of  suc- 
cess. There  are  noble  exceptions  to  this  sweeping  state- 
ment, which  is  meant  only  to  characterize  the  general 
field  of  Latin  teaching.  Nor  would  I  pass 
not  them-       judgment  on  the  mass  of  the  incompetent. 

seivesRe-        They  are  almost  without  exception  men  and 

sponsible  for  /•     i  r         • 

theAmerican    women  of  character,  of  serious  and  earnest 

System.  purpose,  and  faithful,  often  to  the  detriment 

of  their  health,  in  the  performance  of  their  tasks.  They 
are,  nevertheless,  endeavouring  to  achieve  the  impossible, 
—  to  perform  a  work  involving  the  employment  of  large 
resources,  without  ever  having  secured  the  necessary  pre- 
paration. They  are  victims  of  a  system  which  nothing 
but  a  quickening  of  the  public  conscience,  local,  state, 
and  national,  can  alter.  But  the  change  is  inevitable.  It 
will  not  come  in  a  moment;  it  is  now  in  progress,  how- 
ever, and  the  devoted  teacher  should  be  the  one  above 
all  others  to  give  comfort  and  support  to  this  forward 
movement,  for  it  will  give  to  the  teacher  new  ideals, 
new  Hfe,  and  new  dignity.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
time  is  approaching,  and  is  not  far  distant,  when  teachers 
in  the  American  secondary  schools,  like  those  in  Ger- 
many, will,  as  a  result  of  their  completer  preparation 
for  their  profession,  not  merely  be  better  teachers,  but 
will  also,  as  a  result  of  their  enthusiasm  for  Latin  and 
their  devotion  to  it,  be  numbered  among  the  ranks  of 
those  who  by  their  labour  shall,  as  investigators,  add  to 
the  sum  of  our  knowledge  of  classical  antiquity.  In 
Germany  valuable  work  of  this  kind  is  constantly  ema- 
nating from  the  teachers  of  the  secondary  schools.  A 
number  of  the  very  ablest  classical  productions  in  that 
country  have  come  from  this  source. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE    TEACHER  209 

To  be  specific,  it  may  be  well  to  sketch  briefly  the 
range  and  degree  of  knowledge  that  may  be  fairly  ex- 
pected of  the  teacher  of  Latin.  First  of  all,  a  Fair 
the  teacher  must  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  Demand, 
the  Latin  language,  for  the  language  is  the  indispensable 
instrument  with  which  the  pupil  works  in  his  study  of 
Latin.  How  wide  must  this  knowledge  of  the  language 
be  on  the  teacher's  part?  What  should  it  embrace? 
Will  a  thorough  mastery  of  some  approved  manual  of 
grammar  suffice  ?  Far  from  it !  The  teacher  should  be 
above  any  one  book.  He  must  be  familiar  with  many 
works- of  divergent  views.  In  practical  teaching  he  will 
meet,  or  ought  to  meet,  incessantly  with  problems 
covering  the  whole  range  of  the  linguistic  field,  some 
suggested  by  his  own  study  and  experience,  others  sug- 
gested by  his  eager  pupils.  If  these  problems  are  to  be 
met  and  solved,  instead  of  being  brushed  aside  in  indo- 
lence or  by  artful  evasion,  the  teacher  must  know  the 
means  available  for  their  solution.  Does  some  question 
of  inflexions  come  up,  —  the  vocative  of  deus  ;  the  perfect 
of  eo?  He  must  know  the  manuals  that  affi^rd  the  full- 
est and  freshest  information.  Is  it  a  question  of  spelling, 
—  quom  vs.  cunt  or  qinmi  ;  Juppiter  or  Jupiter  ?  It  is 
not  enough  to  accept  the  statement  of  a  grammar,  how- 
ever excellent ;  the  teacher  must  know  the  sources  and 
be  able  to  gather  the  evidence  for  himself.  Is  it  a  ques- 
tion of  pronunciation,  as  of  v,ph,  th,  cef  Or  of  quantity, 
as  in  victoria,  J21SSUS  ?  Or  of  syntactical  theory  or  prac- 
tice? Or  some  other  of  the  important  linguistic  ques- 
tions which  are  perpetually  pressing  for  answer?  In 
every  case  the  teacher  ought  to  know  the  literature  of 
his  subject  and  be  able  to  draw  his  own  independent 
conclusion  in  view  of  the  available  evidence. 

But  while  the  language  must  be  put  first  and  fore- 
most  in   the   equipment   of    the   adequately   prepared 

14 


2IO  PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER 

teacher,  there  are  many  other  fields  in  which  he  must 
be  more  than  a  tyro.  Some  special  knowledge  of  an- 
cient geography  should  be  his,  —  particularly  some 
knowledge  of  the  topography  of  ancient  Rome.  The 
historical  disciplines,  too,  have  a  large  claim  to  make, 
which  cannot  safely  be  ignored.  Under  this  head  come 
not  merely  political  history,  but  the  aUied  disciplines 
of  philosophy,  mythology,  and  the  history  of  literature. 
Again  we  have  the  broad  domain  of  Roman  antiquities, 
—  political,  private,  religious,  and  legal,  a  knowledge  of 
each  of  them  being  practically  indispensable.  Some 
knowledge  of  the  nature  and  methods  of  textual  criti- 
cism, too,  must  the  teacher  have  before  he  can  properly 
understand  the  condition  in  which  the  ancient  texts  have 
come  down  to  us  and  the  spirit  in  which  their  modern 
interpretation  should  be  approached.  That  the  prospec- 
tive teacher  also  should  have  read  widely  in  the  field 
of  the  classical  literature  will  of  course  be  taken  for 
granted,  and  that  his  familiarity  with  Latin  is  such  that 
he  can  interpret  any  ordinary  passage  of  simple  prose 
without  extensive  recourse  to  lexicon  or  commentary. 

The  foregoing  demands  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
possibilities  of  the  teacher's  preliminary  training.  I 
have  designedly  omitted  many  important  branches,  such 
as  the  Italic  dialects  (Oscan  and  Umbrian),  epigraphy, 
palaeography,  along  with  the  various  departments  of 
archaeology,  such  as  architecture,  sculpture,  pottery, 
painting,  numismatics,  to  say  nothing  of  others.  I  have 
simply  outlined  the  *'  irreducible  minimum "  which  it 
seems  to  me  the  teacher  must  have  in  order  adequately 
to  meet  the  legitimate  demands  which  will  be  made  upon 
him  in  the  conscientious  performance  of  his  daily  duty. 
One  other  addition,  however,  must  be  made,  namely,  a 
knowledge  of  Greek.  The  teacher  of  Greek  may  per- 
haps do  without  Latin,  but  the  Latin  teacher  cannot  do 


PREPARATION  OF  THE   TEACHER  21 1 

without  Greek.  AH  Roman  civilization  is  so  dominated 
by  Greek  influences  and  Greek  ideas,  that  the  person 
ignorant  of  Greek  is  incapable  of  understanding  and 
interpreting  to  others  the  significance  of  Roman  life 
and  thought. 

When  our  Latin  teachers  have  something  like  the 
equipment  I  have  described  we  shall  no  longer  merit 
the  reproach  of  a  recent  critic,^  who  declares  that  the 
majority  of  our  high-school  teachers  are  hardly  fit  to 
teach  in  a  primary  school,  and  the  majority  of  primary 
teachers  are  just  enough  educated  to  fill  a  salesgirl's 
place  in  a  millinery  store. 

Obviously  such  training  as  I  have  described  involves 
no  small  outlay  of  time  and  means.  It  involves  special- 
ization in  Latin  throughout  the  college  course,  and  it 
involves  probably  at  least  two  years  of  severer  specializa- 
tion in  classics  after  graduation.  We  may  be  slow  in 
attaining  the  standard  indicated,  but  it  is  bound  to 
come,  and  until  we  reach  it,  or  something  approximating 
it,  we  cannot  honestly  claim  that  we  are  doing  our  whole 
duty  by  the  pupils  of  our  secondary  schools. 

One  word  as  to  **  methods."  It  seems  to  me  that  in 
our  study  of  pedagogy  we  are  often  apt  to  overrate  the 
importance  of  these.  As  I  understand  it,  the  Limitations  of 
science  of  education  aims  at  two  things :  first,  "  Methods." 
to  give  the  history  of  educational  theory  and  practice ; 
secondly,  to  lay  down  certain  fundamental  psychological 
principles  applicable  to  all  teaching.  That  it  should 
prescribe  a  definite  and  mechanical  scheme  for  impart- 
ing instruction  in  Latin  or  anything  else  would  be  pre- 
posterous. Teaching  is  the  very  reverse  of  anything 
mechanical ;  it  is  simply  constant  skilful  adaptation  to 
the  momentary  problem  in  hand.     This  problem  varies 

*  Professor  Munsterberg  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  May,  iqcx). 


212  PREPARATION  OF  THE    TEACHER 

with  the  subject  and  the  minds  with  which  the  teacher  is 
brought  in  contact.  It  is  an  unusual  accident  if  precisely 
the  same  situation  confronts  the  same  teacher  twice 
within  any  reasonable  interval.  There  may  be  "  methods  " 
for  reducing  ores,  for  making  steel,  for  treating  measles 
and  sore  eyes,  but  the  human  mind  is  no  such  constant 
factor  as  even  the  least  constant  of  these  things  I  have 
mentioned.  It  recognises  no  universal  solvent  or  pre- 
scription. In  other  words,  teaching  is  an  art  demanding 
the  fullest  knowledge,  the  fullest  judgment,  the  fullest 
skill ;  it  is  not  intellectual  quackery.  Young  teachers,  I 
believe,  cannot  too  carefully  treasure  this  truth. 


CONCLUDING  NOTE 

In  the  foregoing  pages  I  have  endeavoured  to  discuss 
seriously  the  leading  problems  of  secondary  Latin  edu- 
cation as  they  now  present  themselves  in  this  country. 
Inspired  by  profound  convictions  as  to  the  abiding 
worth  of  Latin,  I  have  naturally  felt  also  a  deep  solici- 
tude for  the  study.  With  this  feeHng  I  have  spoken 
plainly  on  those  points  where  current  tendencies  and 
current  practice  have  seemed  questionable  or  unwise. 
I  have  not  hesitated  to  avow  my  belief  that  most  of 
the  changes  which  have  characterized  the  study  of 
Latin  in  our  secondary  schools  in  the  course  of  the 
last  twenty-five  years  have  worked,  and,  so  far  as  they 
are  still  operative,  are  working  to  the  distinct  detri- 
ment of  the  study.  The  Roman  pronunciation,  the 
prevaihng  type  of  beginner's  book,  the  bulky  gram- 
mar, the  newer  method  of  teaching  Latin  composition, 
the  insistence  on  the  subjective  method  (direct  inter- 
pretation) in  the  early  stages  of  the  study,  —  all  these 
have  long  seemed  to  me  to  mark  serious  errors  of 
educational  theory  and  practice.  That  scores  of  de- 
voted teachers  who  have  likewise  given  conscientious 
thought  to  the  same  problems  cherish  opposite  views 
on  all  of  these  questions,  I  am,  of  course,  aware,  as 
my  extended  consideration  of  their  views  in  the  fore- 
going discussion  amply  shows.  It  is  for  practical 
teachers  in  the  light  of  their  reason  and  experience  to 
determine  where  the  truth  lies.    To  promote  its  ultimate 


214  CONCLUDING  NOTE 

determination   has   been    the   sincere    purpose   of  this 
volume. 

The  friends  of  Latin  should  soberly  consider  that  the 
study  is  now  on  trial  as  never  before.  The  attacks 
against  it  are  not  merely  reactionary,  nor  do  they  pro- 
ceed alone  from  the  prejudiced  or  the  ill-informed. 
They  represent  in  many  instances  the  deliberate  convic- 
tions of  serious  students  of  the  problems  of  education, 
—  convictions  which  it  is  idle  and  wrong  to  ignore.  If 
the  study  is  to  retain  its  position  as  a  permanent  part  of 
the  school  curriculum,  it  can  do  so  only  by  the  positive 
results  it  shows  itself  capable  of  producing.  Whether 
these  shall  commend  themselves  to  educators  will  de- 
pend not  upon  any  theoretical  claims  or  advantages 
of  the  study,  but  upon  wise  and  efficient  instruction. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GREEK  IN  THE 

I        SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

■■.* 

BY 
GEORGE   P.  BRISTOL,  A.M. 

PROFESSOR   OF   GREEK    IN   CORNELL   UNIVERSITY 


The  Teaching  of  Greek  in  the 
Secondary  School 


INTRODUCTION 

THE    AIM    OF    GREEK    STUDY    IN    THE    HIGH    SCHOOL 

A  selective  bibliography  for  use  in  framing  classical  programmes  for 
secondary  schools,  compiled  by  Isaac  B.  Burgess,  is  to  be  found  in  The 
School  Review,  vol.  v.  pp.  625-635.  It  contains  a  carefully  arranged  list 
of  articles  bearing  on  the  subject  of  Greek  in  the  high  school.  The  classi- 
fication of  the  subject  matter  of  these  articles  there  made  is  as  follows : 
I.  Facts  as  to  the  present  condition  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  American 
schools.  II.  Foreign  secondary  schools.  III.  Relation  of  Greek  and 
Latin  to  the  modern  languages  and  to  the  courses  of  the  grammar 
schools.  IV.  Specific  suggested  programmes.  V.  Psychology  and 
method.  VI.  Miscellaneous  facts  and  arguments  bearing  on  the  classical 
programmes  of  secondary  schools. 

That  the  position  of  Greek  in  the  pubhc  high  school 
at  the  present  time  is  not  a  settled  one  will,  I  think,  be 
granted.  The  attacks  upon  it  are  too  frequent  position  of 
in  number,  and  too  varied  in  their  character  Greek  now. 
to  permit  its  defenders  to  rest  secure.  It  seems  to  me 
that  this  condition  is  due  in  large  measure  to  the 
relation  in  which  the  public  high  school  in  many- 
sections  of  the  country  stands  to  the  older  academy. 
An  important  function  of  these  academies  was  the 
preparation  of  boys  for  college.  The  admission  to 
college  was  based  partly  upon  a  knowledge  of  Greek, 
and  the  door  was  barred  against  the  student  who 
could  not  offer  at  least  something  in  this  subject.  But 
gradually  the  boy   without  Greek  found  his  way  into 


2i8  INTRODUCTION 

college,  though  not  at  first  by  the  main  entrance.  First 
a  side  door  was  opened  to  him,  and  if  he  passed  through 
college  without  a  knowledge  of  Greek,  his  diploma  indi- 
cated this  fact  by  showing  a  different  degree.  But  after 
a  while  the  "  regular  course  "  and  the  Bachelor  of  Arts 
degree  were  not  limited  to  the  student  of  Greek.  Latin 
was  longer  required,  but  at  the  present  time,  though  not 
so  largely  as  is  the  case  with  Greek,  has  ceased  to  be 
indispensable  to  a  college  course  and  to  what  is  called 
somewhat  indefinitely  a  '*  Hberal  education." 

This  is  the  present  state  of  things  with  which  we  have 
to  deal,  and  this  state  of  things  has  disposed  of  one  argu- 
ment for  the  study  of  Greek  in  the  high  school,  viz.^  that 
it  is  necessary  to  enable  a  pupil  to  enter  college.  The 
case  of  Greek  must  be  defended  on  its  merits.  Unless 
there  is  value  enough  in  its  study  for  the  student  who 
does  not  get  beyond  the  high  school  to  justify  its  reten- 
tion, Greek  will  ultimately  disappear  from  the  curriculum 
of  the  public  high  school.  Of  the  private  high  school 
it  is  not  possible  to  speak  with  certainty.  It  contains 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  students  who  are  looking 
forward  to  a  college  course,  and  for  this  class  Greek, 
even  when  not  required  at  the  college  of  their  choice,  is 
apt  to  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  college  course  in  it. 
But  I  believe  that  we  shall  not  be  able  to  hold  perma- 
nently the  prominent  place  for  Greek  in  secondary  educa- 
tion which  it  has  occupied  unless  we  can  successfully 
maintain  two  points :  first,  that  the  study  of  Greek 
gives  results  worth  having;  and,  secondly,  that  these 
results  cannot  be  reached  in  any  other  way.  The  study 
of  Greek  means  hard  and  prolonged  labour.  There  is  no 
"  thirteen  weeks  in  Greek,"  with  a  laying  by  of  the  sub- 
ject at  the  end  of  that  time.  Two  years  of  continuous 
study  is  the  minimum  period  recognised.  Are  the 
benefits  derived  therefrom  commensurate  with  the  work? 


INTROD  UCTION  2 1 9 

I  assume  that  two  objects  at  least  are  to  be  gained  by 

the  study  of  Greek  in  the  secondary  schools :  first,  to 

enable  a  student  to  acquire  the  ability  to  read 

_        ,  .  t      1       1     1         r  1-       Two  Objects 

a  Greek  text  with  the  help  of  grammar,  die-  in  High  school 

tionary,  and  an  edition  of  the  author  read  g*'^^®^ 
containing  some  commentary  and  some  helps 
on  the  more  difficult  passages.  Further,  to  read  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  one  author  and  something  at  least 
of  another.  Secondly,  to  gain  such  knowledge  of  the 
principles  underlying  the  formation  and  inflection  of 
words  in  Greek  as  will  enable  him  to  understand  those 
principles  in  their  application  in  Greek  itself,  and  in  their 
large  and  ever-increasing  use  in  the  vocabularies  of  the 
various  sciences,  and  in  the  vocabulary  of  science  common 
to  all  educated  English-speaking  people. 

Under  the  first  of  these  two  heads,  by  the  words 
"  ability  to  read,"  I  do  not  mean  the  ability  to  stumble 
through  a  sentence  and  to  get  the  general  drift  Atrnty  to 
of  the  thought  merely  —  I  mean  that  complete  ^^^^  Greet, 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  Greek  sentence,  which 
detects  the  shifted  emphasis  of  a  changed  word  order, 
which  distinguishes  between  the  meaning  of  attributive 
and  predicate  position  in  the  sentence,  which  notes  care- 
fully the  various  balancing  particles  and  so  grasps  the 
proper  relations  of  the  various  words  in  the  clause,  and 
of  clauses  in  the  sentence.  I  mean  a  feeling  for  those 
delicate  shadings  in  expression  and  in  composition  which 
make  a  Greek  sentence  a  model  of  art.  To  acquire  this 
knowledge  means  careful  study  and  close  attention  to 
many  little  (/.  e.  minute)  things.  And  it  is  just  at  this 
point  that  the  study  of  Greek  is  often  and  violently 
attacked.  This  petty  detail  is  considered  in  many  quar- 
ters as  of  very  slight  or  even  of  no  value.  We  are  told 
that  the  "  Greek  spirit,"  is  the  great  thing  to  be  gained; 
"why,  then,  should   one   waste  the   pupil's   time  with 


220  INTRODUCTION 

Struggles  over  accents,  over  particles  with  minute  differ- 
ences of  meaning?  "  I  say  at  once  that  this  appreciation 
The  "Greek  of  the  "  Greek  spirit"  is  the  greatest  thing  of 
Spirit."  all.     It  is  the  goal  toward  which  all  should 

strive.  But  it  is  not  to  be  reached  by  any  superficial 
study  of  the  various  forms  of  art  in  which  it  found 
expression.  This  very  Greek  spirit  consisted,  in  part  at 
least,  in  a  faithful  attention  to  details,  and  it  is  in  an 
equally  faithful  attention  to  these  details  that  we  shall 
see  and  appreciate  it  ourselves.  It  is  given  to  a  Keats 
to  grasp  this  spirit  by  intuition,  but  for  the  most  of  us 
Hesiod's  words  hold  true : 

T^s  8*  apcT^s  ISptura  O^oi  TrpoTrdpoiOev  WrjKav 
dOdvaroL '  fxaKpos  Se  kol  opdios  oTfLos  i<s  avTrjv, 

Much  is  said  and  much  is  written  on  this  point.  I 
quote  the  following  statements  which  appeared  not  long 
The  Example  ago  in  a  journal  of  sound  views  in  general, 
of  Macauiay  because  they  seem  to  me  to  illustrate  well  a 
very  common  attitude  toward  this  subject.  The  writer  is 
arguing  against  the  present  methods  of  teaching  the 
classics,  and  in  the  course  of  his  article  says :  ''  Every- 
body remembers  what  a  prodigious  lot  of  Latin  and 
Greek  Macauiay  read  on  his  outward  voyage  to  India 
and  while  at  Calcutta.  He  wrote  from  Calcutta  in  1834: 
'  I  read  much  and  particularly  Greek,  and  I  find  that  I 
am,  in  all  essentials,  still  not  a  bad  scholar.  ...  I  read, 
however,  not  as  I  read  at  college,  but  as  a  man  of  the 
world.  If  I  do  not  know  a  word,  I  pass  it  by,  unless  it 
is  important  to  the  sense.  If  I  find,  as  I  have  of  late 
often  found,  a  passage  which  refuses  to  give  up  its  mean- 
ing at  second  reading,  I  let  it  alone.  I  have  read  during 
the  last  fortnight,  before  breakfast,  three  books  of  He- 
rodotus, and  four  plays  of  .^schylus.'  It  is  perfectly 
evident  that  Macauiay  had  some  use  and  joy  of  his  clas- 


IN  TROD  UCTION  22 1 

sics  *  as  a  man  of  the  world,'  and  it  is  notorious  that  not 
one  American  college-bred  man  in  a  hundred  has  that 
easy-going  familiarity  with  Latin  and  Greek  which  he 
had.  Is  the  discipline  of  half-knowledge  gained  by  the 
drudgery  of  the  grammar  and  lexicon  in  the  old  way  so 
precious  and  upbuilding  that  it  must  be  forever  set  above 
thorough  knowledge  and  mastery?  It  is  not  the  course 
of  instruction  that  needs  revising,  but  the  methods  of 
teaching." 

The  passage  quoted  from  Macaulay  is  found  in  Tre- 
velyan's  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay,  vol.  i.  p.  376. 
In  connection  with  it  should  be  read  the  remaining  pages 
of  the  volume.  I  wish  to  insert  here  one  sentence  fur- 
ther. Macaulay  says  (p.  379)  :  "  I  think  myself  very 
fortunate  in  having  been  able  to  return  to  these  great 
masters  while  still  in  the  full  vigour  of  life,  and  when  my 
taste  and  judgment  are  mature.  Most  people  read  all 
the  Greek  that  they  ever  read  before  they  are  five  and 
twenty.  They  never  find  time  for  such  studies  after- 
ward till  they  are  in  the  decline  of  life ;  and  then  their 
knowledge  of  the  language  is  in  a  great  measure  lost, 
and  cannot  easily  be  recovered."  This  sentence  follows 
directly  the  statement  that  the  blessing  of  loving  liter- 
ature as  he  loved  it  had  been  the  chief  means  of  keep- 
ing him  from  sinking  under  the  heavy  blow  of  domestic 
bereavement,  and  that  chief  among  all  his  books  were 
his  Greek  authors. 

It  seems  to  me  that  this  argument  on  the  proper 
method  of  teaching  the  classics  in  so  far  as  it  seeks  to 
base  on  the  example  of  Macaulay  proves  .^^^^  Macau- 
exactly  the  opposite  of  what  it  is  intended  lay's  case 
to  prove.  I  assume  that  it  was  intended  to  *^^^^  means, 
prove  that,  since  Macaulay  read  as  a  man  of  the  world, 
skipping  a  word  now  and  then,  or  neglecting  even  a 
whole  sentence,  so  it  would  be  profitable  for  a  boy  to  be 


222  INTRODUCTION 

trained  in  this  way  to  read  his  Xenophon  or  his  Cicero. 
But  in  fact  Macaulay  read  like  a  man  of  the  world,  and 
was  able  so  to  read,  because  he  had  back  of  him  long 
years  of  careful  reading  in  school  and  in  college.  It 
was  the  power  and  the  knowledge  gained  in  these  years 
of  toil  which  enabled  him  to  secure  in  after  life  the  pleas- 
ure he  so  dearly  loved  and  prized.  I  venture  a  citation 
or  two  from  his  letters  home  while  at  school.  When  thir- 
teen he  writes :  "  I  do  Xenophon  every  day  and  twice 
a  week  the  Odyssey,  Latin  verses  twice  a  week.  We 
get  by  heart  Greek  grammar  or  Virgil  every  evening." 
This  on  week  days.  "  On  Sunday,"  he  says  a  Httle  later, 
"we  learn  a  chapter  in  the  Greek  Testament,  without 
doing  it  with  a  dictionary,  like  other  lessons."  This,  or 
something  like  this,  lasted  for  five  years,  only  to  be  fol- 
lowed when  he  went  up  to  the  University  by  an  amount 
of  reading  in  the  classics  which  would  astonish  an  Ameri- 
can college  graduate,  a  college  man  even  who  had  made 
the  classics  his  specialty.  No,  if  any  argument  is  to  be 
drawn  from  the  case  of  Macaulay,  so  often  cited,  it  is  an 
argument  for  thorough  work  from  the  start  and  for  a 
longer  continuance  of  these  studies  than  is  now  common. 
But  let  me  say  frankly  that  I  do  not  believe  that  in  the 
three  years  (to  say  nothing  of  a  shorter  period)  of  pre- 
Hecessary  paratory  study,  the  average  pupil  can  gain  the 
Limitations  power,  SO  often  claimed  and  so  often  (appar- 
in  study.  ently)  demanded,  of  ''reading  Attic  prose  at 
sight."  I  am  not  convinced,  however,  that  this  power 
or  ability  is  the  ultimate  test  of  the  value  of  the  study. 
What  this  study  can  do,  and  what  this  study  rightly 
applied  and  rightly  directed  ought  to  do,  is  to  give  a  habit 
of  accuracy  in  reading  the  text ;  I  mean,  in  seeing  all  there 
is  of  a  word  because  all  of  it  —  prefix,  root,  and  suffix 
—  must  be  taken  into  account  in  determining  the  exact 
meaning  it  carries  with  it.     The  very  strangeness  of  the 


INTRODUCTION 


223 


forms  will  compel  this  searching  analysis  of  them.  That 
carelessness  in  reading  of  our  own  language  is  all  too 
common  among  pupils  in  our  schools,  is  a  common  com- 
plaint of  teachers.  A  lack  of  training  in  exact  observa- 
tion and  in  exact  statement  is  too  frequently  observed 
among  men  of  college  education,  and  I  believe  that  much 
of  it  is  due  to  careless  habits  of  youth  and  of  school.  I 
do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  saying  that  the  study 
of  Greek  is  the  only  discipline  which  gives,  or  which  can 
give,  this  training  in  accuracy,  but  that  this  training  is 
one  of  the  results  of  the  study  rightly  followed. 

Another  result  of  the  study  of  Greek  is  the  acquaint- 
ance with  some  of  the  best  of  the  world's  literature. 
Not  to  press  the  question  as  to  the  literary  Knowledge  of 
value  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  which  is,  I  Literature, 
believe,  greater  than  is  often  admitted,  the  student  in  a 
three  years'  course  can  make  the  acquaintance  of  Plato 
in  addition,  or  of  some  other  prose  author,  and  even  in  the 
minimum  of  two  years  he  can  get  a  considerable  amount 
of  Homer.  This  is  no  mean  achievement  if  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  literary  gain  alone.  But  all  the 
while  the  drill  in  translating  has  been  forcing  him  to 
think  on  the  means  of  expression  in  the  two  languages, 
and  by  the  delicate  shadings  in  the  Greek  it  should  have 
compelled  an  equally  careful  consideration  of  the  expres- 
sion of  the  same  thought  in  English. 

The  second  of  the  two  main  results  attainable  in  the 
school  study  of  Greek  is  the  ability  to  understand  better 
the  great  number  of  modern  scientific  (in  the  knowledge  of 
widest  sense)  terms  in  English.  I  think  there  Greek  Words 
can  be  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  de-  "*  °^  ^  • 
sirability  of  this  result.  If  we  except  the  study  of  the 
Law,  whose  vocabulary  is  largely  English,  or  English 
with  Latin  elements,  there  is  not  one  of  the  learned  pro- 
fessions the  vocabulary  of  which  does  not  include   an 


224  INTRODUCTION 

immense  stock  of  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  or 
formed  at  least  from  Greek  elements.  But  it  is  often 
asserted  that  this  knowledge  can  be  obtained  by  studying 
just  enough  Greek  to  be  able  to  recognise  these  elements 
or  these  words.  I  am  inclined  to  doubt  the  efficiency  of 
this  amount  of  study  of  Greek  for  the  end  proposed.  I 
doubt  if  the  understanding  of  the  compounds  is  much 
clearer  than  it  would  be  if  the  words  were  looked  up  in  an 
English  dictionary,  and  their  elements  learned  mechan- 
ically therein.  I  doubt  it  for  this  reason — learning  a 
foreign  word  is  an  act  of  arbitrary  memory,  and  the 
word  will  in  all  probability  be  forgotten  unless  by  see- 
ing it  frequently  in  reading  its  meaning  and  form  have 
become  thoroughly  fixed  in  the  student's  mind.  It  is 
only  by  seeing  a  word  many  times  and  in  various  asso- 
ciations that  it  becomes  a  familiar  acquaintance.  I  think 
that  reading  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  fixing  of  a 
vocabulary. 

So  I  think  that  the  second  of  the  two  ends  I  have 
assumed  above  is  reached  in  close  connection  with,  and 
through  the  means  of  the  first.  In  the  fol- 
lowing chapters  I  shall  have  constantly  in 
mind  this  proposition.  The  great  aim  of  the  study  of 
Greek  in  the  high  school  is  to  gain  the  power  to  read 
Greek,  and  to  read  as  much  Greek  as  can  be  done  with 
care  in  the  time  given  to  its  study.  In  doing  this  many 
lessons  will  be  learned  in  related  lines,  —  in  history,  in  art, 
in  the  problems  which  faced  the  Greeks  as  individuals 
and  as  organized  in  society.  All  of  these  manifestations 
of  the  activity  of  the  Greek  mind  are  intensely  interesting 
and  valuable  for  study,  but  the  language  in  which  they 
brought  so  much  of  their  thought  to  expression  must 
remain  the  primary  object  of  attention  in  the  school 
period  of  study. 


CHAPTER   I 

PRONUNCIATION 

REFERENCES.! 

\  The  Pronunciation  of  Ancient  Greek.  Translated  from  the 
third  German  edition  by  W.  J.  Purton.  Cambridge,  University  Press. 
1890. 

This  is  the  best  work  on  the  subject.  It  gives  a  history  of  the  contro- 
versy in  modern  times  about  the  pronunciation  of  ancient  Greek,  and 
states  with  sufficient  fulness  the  evidence  upon  which  the  method  now 
generally  followed  in  schools  is  based.  Every  teacher  should  have 
access  to  it,  and  should  read  it  carefully.  The  large  Historical  Greek 
Grammar  of  Jannaris,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1897,  furnishes  an  elaborate 
argument  for  the  "  Modern  Greek  method,"  but  it  is  not  a  book  from 
which  a  teacher  in  the  high  school  can  derive  much  practical  assist- 
ance. A  most  instructive  and  valuable  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of 
certain  points  in  the  pronunciation  of  Greek  consonants  was  made  in  1896 
by  J.  J.  Hess  in  an  article  dealing  with  transcriptions  of  Egyptian  words 
in  the  Greek  alphabet  in  the  second  century  a,  d.  It  is  in  Indoger- 
manische  Forschungen,  vol.  vi.  pp.  123-135.  A  statement  of  the  case  for 
the  modern  Greek  pronunciation  in  Educational  Review,  vol.  i.  p.  265, 
by  G.  C.  Sawyer.  Also  in  vol.  iv.  p.  492,  by  MacMullen,  and  vol.  v.  p.  481, 
by  J.  S.  Blackie.  A  reply  to  these  in  vol.  vi.  p.  379,  by  G.  M.  Whicher.  It 
may  safely  be  said  that  the  best  authorities  do  not  accept  the  theories  of 
those  who  would  have  us  accept  the  modem  Greek  pronunciation  on  the 
ground  that  it  represents  faithfully  the  pronunciation  of  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century  B.C.  It  is  possible  to  make  out  a  case  for  the  modern  Greek  |5ro- 
nunciation,  but  not  upon  that  basis.  See  B.  I.  Wheeler  on  The  Question 
of  Language-Standard  in  Modern  Greece,  American  JOURNAL  OF  PHI- 
LOLOGY, vol.  xviii.  p.  19. 


1  I  have  not  attempted  in  these  references  to  give  anything  like  a 
complete  list  of  works  on  the  various  topics,  or  even  always  of  the  most 
important.  My  aim  has  been  in  this,  as  in  the  rest  of  my  work,  to  help 
the  teacher  to  the  most  simple  and  direct  works  bearing  on  this  subject. 
I  have  always  preferred  English  books  and  articles  in  journals  to  those 
in  foreign  languages  when  it  seemed  possible. 

IS 


226  PRONUNCIATION 

H.  W.  Chandler.  A  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Accentuation. 
Second  edition.  Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  1881.  A  work  of  great  useful- 
ness. Gives  rules  for  the  accentuation  of  the  various  categories  of  words, 
and  a  very  large  number  of  illustrative  examples,  with  an  index  of  words 
grouped  according  to  their  terminations. 

Benjamin  I.  Wheeler.  Der  Griechische  Nominal  accent.  Strassburg, 
Triibner.  1885.  A  valuable  study  of  the  historical  development  of  the 
Greek  accent. 

With  the  first  lesson  in  Greek,  as  in  any  language,  we 

are  confronted  by  the  question  of  pronunciation.     It  is 

The  Question    ^^  Supreme    importance,    and    it   cannot   be 

is  Funda-        avoided.     For  pronounce  we  must,  rightly  or 
mental.  ,  ,  .    .     .  .       , 

wrongly,  and  it  is  just  as  easy  to  start  in  the 

right  way  as  in  any  other,  while  such  a  start  saves  much 

labour  later  on,  and   makes   possible  an  accuracy  not 

otherwise  attainable.^ 

Language  is  speech,  not  writing.      As  most  of  our 

teaching  is  by  talking  to  one  another,  so  the  words  we 

speech  and      ^^e  must  be  exact  in  form,  if  we  are  to  be 

Writing.         understood  and  to  understand  in  return.    The 

ear  must  be  trained  as  well  as  the  eye.      The  written 

letters  and  words  are  merely  a  means  of  making  clear 

through    the    medium    of    sight    the    real   words,   i.  e. 

sounds.     It  is  all  important,  then,  that  these  real  words 

should  have  a  fixed  relation  to  their  eye  symbols,  the 

written  words.     In  Greek  this  relation  is  a  simpler  one 

than  in  English,  for,  excepting  the  varying  quantity  of 

the  sounds  denoted  by  a  t  f ,  each  sound  has  one  written 

symbol  and  one  only.     Conversely  each  written  symbol 

denotes  only  one  sound.     In  English  the  sound  is  often 

no  clew  to  the  spelling,  and  the  reducing  of  unaccented 


1  Some  excellent  observations  on  the  necessity  of  a  correct  habit  in 
pronunciation  and  of  the  early  forming  of  that  habit  may  be  seen  in  The 
School  Review  for  P'ebruary,  1900,  on  page  88.  They  are  contained  in 
a  report  to  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the 
Southern  States  of  a  committee  on  Programme  of  Studies,  and  are  by 
Chancellor  J.  H.  Kirkland  of  Vanderbilt  University. 


P  RON  UNCI  A  TION 


227 


vowels  to  a  uniform  value  makes  it  much  more  difficult 
to  keep  ear  symbol  and  eye  symbol  correlated  in  mem- 
ory. For  instance,  a  spelling  of  the  Greek  word  arparTj^o^ 
as  arpari^o^,  lately  noticed  by  me,  gives  clear  proof  of 
failure  in  pronouncing  to  distinguish  rj  and  i  when  not 
accented.  This  is  common  enough  in  English,  as  may  be 
seen  in  such  words  as  teachable  and  visible,  whose  middle 
syllable  is  sounded  like  the  u  in  but.  For  Greek,  as  for 
Latin,  however,  it  is  entirely  wrong.  If  one  of  the  results 
of  the  study  of  Greek  is  to  train  the  eye  in  accurate  ob- 
servation in  reading,  it  ought  to  do  as  much  for  the  ear 
in  the  real  reading,  i.  e.  speaking. 

Language  is  constantly  changing.  Our  own  language 
shares  this  principle  of  change  in  common  c^jjg^^^ 
with  all  others,  ancient  and  modern.  This  change  in 
change,  though  constant,  is  so  gradual  that  ^^*^®- 
we  usually  fail  to  take  note  of  the  minute  variations,  and 
it  is  not  until  in  a  given  word,  or  in  a  group  of  words,  the 
difference  in  sound  has  become  so  marked  that  we  are 
struck  by  it,  that  we  speak  of  a  difference  in  dialect. 
For  instance,  think  of  the  varying  pronunciation  in 
English  of  the  word  bath.  Between  the  extremes  bawth 
and  baath  lie  a  large  number  of  actual  sounds  given  the 
word  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Denoting  one  of 
the  sounds  above  indicated  by  a  and  the  other  by  z,  it 
is  evident  that  we  may  have  a  large  number  of  inter- 
mediate sounds  each  of  which  differs  from  its  nearest 
related  sound  by  a  very  small  difference.  It  is  only 
the  trained  ear  that  recognises  the  divergence  of  one  of 
them  from  the  next  in  the  series,  while  the  great  dif- 
ference between  a  and  z  would  strike  even  the  most 
uneducated  listener.  These  changes  are  constantly 
going  on  in  all  living  tongues,  and  we  detect  them 
by  careful  attention,  and  by  training  our  ears  to  recog- 
nise the  "  correct "  sounds,  as  we  hear  them  spoken, 


228  PRONUNCIA  TION 

and  by  imitating  these  alone.  For  languages  no  longer 
spoken  this  is  impossible,  and  so  the  rules  for  pronuncia- 
tion have  not  the  same  degree  of  certainty  as  in  the  case 
of  languages  now  in  common  use. 

Further,  if  we  apply  the  same  system  of  pronunciation 
to  widely  separated  periods  of  a  language,  it  is  evident 
Butnotin  ^^^^  ^^  Cannot  be  equally  true  for  all  of  these 
the  Writing  periods.  The  written  symbols  when  once 
fixed  are  hard  to  change.  As  time  goes  on, 
however,  they  are  interpreted  differently,  they  are  trans- 
lated into  different  ear  symbols,  and  so  they  are  not 
really  the  same  words.  For  example,  we  spell  our  words 
in  English  mostly  as  they  were  spelled  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  we  know  that  the  sounds  they  represent  are 
not  the  same  sounds  which  they  then  represented ;  that 
is,  the  words  (sounds)  are  not  the  same  words  now  as 
then,  though  the  eye  symbols  of  them  are  the  same. 
This  eye  picture  of  a  word  is  like  the  photograph  of  a 
friend  taken  long  ago.  We  recognise  the  features  as 
those  of  our  friend,  but  we  know  that  it  is  not  the  picture 
of  the  man  as  he  now  looks. 

For  a  language,  then,  whose  Hterature  covers  a  period 
of  hundreds  of  years,  no  one  system  of  pronunciation 
can  be  right.  The  English  of  Shakspere's  time  did  not 
sound  as  we  make  it  sound  in  reading  his  plays  to-day. 
In  the  case  of  Greek,  as  of  Latin,  we  must  for  the  sake 
of  uniformity,  that  we  may  understand  one  another, 
choose  the  pronunciation  of  some  one  period  in  the 
history  of  the  language,  and  then  apply  this  to  all  other 
periods.  This  is  the  only  practical  solution  of  the 
problem. 

The  pronunciation  adopted  for  ancient  Greek  is  that 
Theory  and  believed  to  have  been  followed  by  the  Athe- 
Pronuncia^  nians  about  the  year  400  B.  c.  In  practice, 
lion.  however,    this    is     commonly     considerably 


PRONUNCIATION  229 

modified,  with  the  object  of  getting  rid  of  some  sounds 
which  are  strange  to  our  ears,  and  with  a  view  to  ease  in 
actual  use.  It  seems  to  me  wiser  to  admit  frankly  our 
departures  from  what  is  theoretically  correct,  and  to  de- 
fend them  on  the  ground  of  practicaHty,  than  to  spend 
too  much  effort  in  an  attempt  to  reach  the  ideally  per- 
fect. I  shall  speak  of  the  points  in  pronunciation  which 
seem  to  me  to  be  the  most  important  in  teaching  the 
reading  of  Greek,  and  shall  begin  with  the  sounds  of  the 
vowels.  First  and  chiefly,  I  regard  it  of  the  importance  of 
utmost  importance  that  the  student  should  vowei  values, 
learn  the  vowels  a  e  t  in  their  "  European  " 
values,  and  should  always  speak  of  them  either  by  their 
Greek  names  dX(f)a,  e  yjnXov,  Icora^  or  by  repeating  the 
sound  itself,  a/iy  eh,  ih.  The  sounds  connected  with  these 
symbols  are  about  the  same  in  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and 
German,  and  there  is  an  immense  practical  advantage  in 
having  their  treatment  uniform.  I  believe  it  a  mistake 
in  oral  speUing  of  Greek,  or  of  any  foreign  language,  to 
use  the  Enghsh  names  for  the  letters.  E.g.,  spelling 
out  to  a  student  the  letters  t-i-s-i-s  would  undoubtedly 
lead  him  to  write  tCgi^,  but  the  reverse  conclusion  in  his 
mind  as  to  the  pronunciation  of  what  he  had  written 
could,  if  logical,  only  be  false.  Secondly,  the  sound  of 
short  0,  6  iJLLKpov,  is  important.  The  difficulty 
in  the  pronunciation  of  this  sound  lies  in 
keeping  the  short  quantity  of  the  sound  and  at  the  same 
time  distinguishing  it  from  a.  In  the  United  States 
"  short  o "  as  in  hot,  lot,  etc.,  is  practically  an  ah} 

The  first  of  these  two  words,  for  example,  does  not 
often  differ  from  the  German  word  hat.  The  older  and 
truer  value  of  0  is  still  heard  in  the  speech  of  some 
people,  though  rarely.    It  may  be  reached  approximately 


1  See  O.  F.  Emerson,  History  of  the  English  Language,  p.  209. 


230 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


by  shortening  the  vowel  sound  in  the  word  law.  Thus, 
law,  lawty  Idwt  (=  lot).  This  vowel  sound  is  of  very 
frequent  occurrence  in  Greek,  and  is  of  great  importance 
in  word  formation  and  inflection.  From  the  start  effort 
should  be  made  to  have  the  student  distinguish  it  from  a. 
Another  vowel  sound  often  not  marked  with  sufficient 
care  is  v.  The  grammars  give  its  value  with  practical 
unanimity.  It  should  be  given  the  sound  of  German  u, 
French  u,  in  all  cases  when  it  is  not  found  as  the  second 
element  of  a  diphthong.  In  the  diphthongs,  au,  ey,  77U,  it 
retains  its  older  value  of  the  Latin  //.  This  is  like 
English  00  in  boot,  though  not  long  in  quantity.  Care 
taken  in  sounding  this  vowel  at  the  outset  will  prevent 
the  formation  of  a  habit  which  leads  to  the  sounding  of 
(fyevycov  and  (jyvycov  alike  as  fewgone.  t)  is  almost  without 
exception  given  the  value  of  English  a  in  ba-hel,  though 
the  true  sound  is  nearer  that  of  a  in  babble.  In  English 
we  represent  the  bleating  of  sheep  by  baa.  Cratinus,  a 
poet  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C,  represented  it  by  ^7)^7). 
There  are  two  reasons  based  upon  convenience  in  use 
for  giving  this  latter  value ;  first,  the  clearer  view 
thereby  gained  of  the  shifting  between  tj  and  a  in  the 
first  declension ;  second,  the  avoiding  of  confusion  with 
the  sound  of  the  diphthong  ei. 

The  Sounds  of  the  Diphthongs,     ai.,  av.     Each  vowel 
has  its  own  sound,  and  the  two  are  combined  in  one 
syllable :   Xal/jua,  as  English  Lima;  avre,  as  in 
thongs.  Latin  aut,  and  like  English  out;  ey  =  English 

ci  an  w.  eh-00.  There  is  no  exact  English  equivalent 
for  this  diphthong,  but  an  effort  should  be  made  to  give 
the  sound  as  accurately  as  can  be,  and  particularly  to 
avoid  pronouncing  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  sounds 
of  eu,  oy,  V  all  equal  to  English  j/^?/.  If  this  habit  of  con- 
fusion is  allowed,  there  is  sure  to  result  hopeless  con- 
founding of  such  forms  as  ecjyevyov  and  €(l)vyov,  Xovco  and 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


231 


Xuft),  and  others.  'r)v  is  not  very  common.  The  sound 
would  be  something  Hke  English  douch  or  abdout.  ov 
is  monophthongal  and  =  English  00  in  boot,  et  is  like 
the  same  letters  in  English  etg/it.  There  were  two  differ- 
ent sounds  represented  by  this  diphthong.  First,  a  true 
diphthong  in  such  words  as  XeiTrco,  areiXfo.  This  et  in- 
terchanges in  word  composition  and  inflection  with  ot 
and  t.  E' g'i  Xe/TrcD,  Xekoiira^  Xotiro^,  eXLirov;  areL^,^, 
o-Tot;j^o9,  (ttIx^^'  Second,  a  "  spurious  "  diphthong  — 
really  not  a  diphthong  at  all  —  formed  by  the  contraction 
of  two  e  sounds  into  one.  E.g.y  e-<f)C\e-e  becomes  iipiXec. 
The  cases  of  et  in  Greek  in  which  it  arises  in  this  way 
are  very  numerous,  and  justify,  I  think,  the  pronuncia- 
tion indicated  above.  The  phenomena  of  vowel  contrac- 
tion and  of  compensative  lengthening  are  made  plainer, 
and  the  rules  governing  them  are  rendered  easier  of 
comprehension  and  are  better  retained  by  the  use  of 
this  pronunciation,  "e-e  becomes  by  contraction  et" 
(pronounced  as  at  in  ais/e)  is  an  arbitrary  statement 
with  no  possible  vocal  illustration,  but  "e-e  becomes 
a "  (pronounced  as  in  eig/tt}  is  easily  illustrated  and 
remembered. 

TAe  Consonant.  These  present  fewer  difficulties  and 
there  are  fewer  points  of  disagreement  among  teachers 
in  their  pronunciation.  I  note  a  few  points  of  consonants, 
importance,  f  should  not  be  sounded  like  d^  The  Aspirates, 
in  adze,  but  like  z  simply,  or  like  2d.  Com- 
pare, for  example,  'AOrjva^e  (for  'A6r]vaa-Be)  and  olKovSe, 
MeyapdSe.  The  aspirates  (/>,  0-,  %,  were  true  aspirates ; 
that  is,  they  were  sounded  approximately  as  in  English 
uphold^  pothook,  blockhead.  In  their  pronunciation, 
however,  they  are  commonly  treated  as  spirants,  and 
are  given  values  which  they  assumed  much  later  in  the 
history  of  the  language;  that  is,  they  are  sounded 
like  English  /,  th  (as  in  thin,  not  as  in  this,  that)  and, 


232  PRONUNCIATION 

though  not  so  regularly,  like  German  ch  in  machen. 
I  believe  that  this  method  is  advisable,  though  it  is 
certainly  not  historically  correct,  for  by  it  tt  and  (^,  t 
and  By  k  and  %  are  differentiated  and  distinguished,  and 
the  relation  between  many  English  derivative  words 
and  their  Greek  originals  is  not  obscured.  Compare, 
for  instance,  the  immense  number  of  compounds  into 
which  <^tXo9  enters  as  a  component  part.  In  speaking 
of  the  mutes  and  of  their  classification  I  think  the  terms 
"  labial,"  "  dental,"  and  "guttural"  (or  ''palatal")  are 
the  best. 

The  Accent  in  Pronunciation,  There  is  still  the  large 
question  of  the  accent.  Theories  as  to  the  minor  prob- 
Accent  Dif-  ^^"^^  °^  ^^^  Greek  tones  need  not  occupy  the 
ficuitiesin  time  of  the  teacher.  Two  points  are,  however, 
Practice.  important.  The  accent  should  be  placed  in 
pronouncing  where  it  is  put  in  writing  the  words,  and  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  true  quantity  of  the 
vowels.  E.  g.,  (J)lXo<;  and  crtro?,  though  both  have  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable,  differ  in  the  quantity  of  the 
first  vowel,  alro^  =  English  see-toss,  while  </)tXo9  =  Eng- 
lish ft- loss  (^  as  in  Jit).  Another  frequent  confusion 
which  I  have  noted  is  between  such  words  as  Spd/xa 
{^  drah-ma)  and  ^pdi^y^a  (=  gramma).  The  first  syl- 
lable is  long  in  both  of  them,  but  in  the  first  this  length 
is  due  to  a  long  vowel,  and  in  the  second  to  the  doubled 
consonant.  It  is  very  hard  to  avoid  lengthening  short 
Accent  and  vowels  under  the  accent  in  such  words  as 
Vowel  KaKid,  and  to  keep  the  proper  quantity  of  the 

Quantity.  \ong  and  unaccented  vowel.  This  word  is 
usually  sounded  ka-kee-a,  and  not,  as  it  should  be, 
ka-kih-ah.  This  habit  tends  to  prevent  the  feeling  for 
the  quantitative  principle  of  Greek  poetry,  or  to  very 
largely  obscure  the  perception  of  the  principle.  See 
further  discussion  of  this  point  in  Chapter  IV.    The  dis- 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


233 


tinction  between  the  circumflex  and  the  acute  can  be 
illustrated  in  English.  Compare  the  difference  in  sound 
in  the  word  how?  If  spoken  as  a  direct  question,  it  is 
circumflexed.  K'=>/^  Go  and  do  this!''  ^^  Hdwf"  But 
compare  **  I  did  not  tell  you  to  do  it  in  that  way!''  "  H6w 
then?''  Enforce  the  time  element  in  speaking  and  in 
reading  Greek.  Call  attention  to  the  speech  of  children, 
which  is  far  more  musical  than  that  of  their  elders.  In 
learning  Greek  words  for  the  first  time  the  accent  should 
be  learned  as  an  integral  part  of  the  word.  Some 
accent  the  word  must  have  when  spoken,  and  the  right 
one  can  be  learned  as  well  as  a  wrong  one.  The  suffix 
of  a  word  is,  of  course,  not  the  natural  place  for  us  to 
put  the  accent,  but  it  can  be  put  where  it  belongs,  and 
should  be  put  there  from  the  very  outset.  Time  spent 
here  is  well  expended,  and  is  a  saving  of  more  vaitieof 
labour  later  on,  and  of  labour  which  can  then  Practice  for 
far  less  easily  accomplish  the  result  aimed  at 
if  it  can  accomplish  it  at  all.  Reading  out  loud,  commit- 
ting to  memory  short  sentences  and  reciting  them  slowly, 
and  with  distinct  efforts  to  indicate  the  tones  and  the 
quantities  of  each  syllable,  are  excellent  exercises.  The 
more  the  time  that  can  be  given  to  oral  instruction  at 
the  start,  the  better  the  results.  The  teacher  should  call 
for  the  pronunciation  of  words  by  the  students  in  various 
ways.  First,  let  the  teacher  himself  pronounce  the  word, 
and  call  upon  one  or  more  of  the  class  to  repeat  it. 
Secondly,  take  some  simple  words,  and,  pronouncing 
them,  have  the  class  write  them  down.  Gradually  in- 
crease the  number  of  words  so  used  until  a  short  sentence 
has  been  formed.  A  third  modification  of  the  exercise 
may  be  made  by  the  teacher's  writing  down  the  words 
exactly  as  the  student  pronounces  them,  and  then  call- 
ing attention  to  errors.  Try  to  make  the  members  of 
the  class  critics  of  one  another.     Impress  upon  them 


234 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


the  necessity  for  a  large  amount  of  practice  outside  the 
class-room.  A  new  language  with  its  strange  sounds 
and  forms  cannot  be  made  familiar  by  devoting  one 
hour  only  per  day  to  its  study  and  practice.  Eye  and 
ear  should  be  trained  together,  and  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  practice  be  secured.  This  question  of 
acquiring  a  proper  pronunciation  involves  no  choice 
between  methods  of  further  instruction,  and  is  equally 
important  for  all  further  instruction  and  study. 

Enclitics  and  Proclitics.  These  are  capable  of  receiv- 
ing ample  illustration  in  English  where  they  are  in  con- 
EncUsis.  stant  use.  E.  g.  Give  him  the  book^  or  give 
niustrations  him  the  bodkj  and  give  him  the  book ;  Tell  me 
*™  ^  '  and  tell  m^  may  serve  to  show  enclitics  in 
English.  Proclitics  are  furnished  by  the  definite  and 
the  indefinite  article.  The  main  point  is  to  show  the 
student  that  what  looks  strange  and  what  is  described 
by  unfamiliar  names  and  in  new  words  is  really  some- 
thing simple  in  its  nature  and  a  matter  of  every-day 
use. 

There  is  hardly  any  portion  of  the  field  of  Greek 
studies  in  which  there  is  so  little  unity  in  practice  as  in 
ThePronimcia- ^^^  writing  and  speaking  of  Greek  names, 
tion  of  Proper  One  meets  Aeschylus,  Aischylos,  AischuloSy 
*™^*  Aiskhulos,  and  with  varying   pronunciation, 

EschyluSy  Eeschylus,  Aisclmlos,  and  possibly  other  varia- 
tions. Socrates  appears  as  Sokrates,  and  Aesop  looks 
strange  enough  as  Aisopos.  Aristotle  appears  almost 
always  in  this  recognised  EngHsh  form,  but  Plato  meets 
us  as  Vlsiton,  and  this  form  is  spoken  either  Playtone  or 
Plah-tone.  It  is  not  reasonable  that  such  confusion 
should  continue.^     In  defence  of  these  strange  forms  it 


1  A  protest  against  the  prevailing  lack  of  uniformity  in  this  matter 
may  be  seen  in  the  Educational  Review,  vol.  vii.  p.  495,  by  John  M. 
Moss. 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


235 


is  urged  that  we  should  reproduce  the  Greek  word  as 
nearly  as  possible.  This  might  be  urged  for  the  spell- 
ing Klearkhos,  but  not  for  pronouncing  this  with  the 
accent  on  the  second  syllable,  for  in  the  Greek  alphabet 
it  is  KXeapxo^.  Nor  is  Kledrkhos  a  help  to  the  correct 
writing  of  the  Greek  form,  since  %  is  commonly  trans- 
literated by  ch.  Against  this  way  of  writing 
Greek  names  in  Roman  letters  may  be  urged  anmstoric 
that  our  English  literature  is  full  of  such  names  ?^  ^ 

°  English. 

which  have  come  to  have  familiar  forms,  and 

that  these  forms  may  be  considered  as  genuine  English 

words,  almost  as  recognised  translations  of  their  Greek 

originals.     Further,  it  seems  to  me  that  this  method  is 

rarely  carried  out  consistently  by  its  advocates.     In  fact, 

some  of  them  say  that  names  which  have  acquired  a 

familiar  form  in  English  writers  should  not  be  changed. 

Well,  here  is  just  the  point  of  uncertainty,  for  who  shall 

say  that  this  or  that  name  has  acquired  such  a  form? 

Why    should   Aristotle   be    left    untouched,   but    Plato 

changed   to  Platan  f      The  only  defensible  method    to 

my  mind  is  that  generally  adopted  for  dictionaries  of 

biography  in  English,  for  cyclopaedias,  and  other  works 

of  reference  of  a  similar  kind.    According  to  this  method, 

the  Greek  names  are  written  in  the  Latin  form,  and  are 

then   spoken  with    the    English    sound-values  of  these 

letters,  but  with  the   Roman   accentuation.      In   actual 

usage,  some  exceptions,  affecting  the  quantity  chiefly, 

are  made.     The  importance  of  this  matter  and  the  slight 

attention   given  it  in  grammars  and  beginners'  books 

justify  a  statement  of  these  principles  here.^  ■ 

1  In  but  one  of  the  Greek  grammars  most  commonly  used,  and  in  one 
only  of  beginners'  books,  so  far  as  I  know,  is  any  attempt  made  to  explain 
these  principles  of  transliteration. 


236 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


TABLE 

OF 

EQUIVALENTS 

Greek  Alphabet 

Latin  Alphabet 

a,  €,  J],  I,  o,  0) 

a,  e,  i,  o 

V 

y 

at 

ae 

Cl 

i(e) 

ot 

oe  (oi) 

av 

au 

eu 


But  -09  and  -ov  as  endings  of  nouns  of  the  second 
declension  are  represented  by  -its  and  -um,  and  -ot,  end- 
ing of  the  plural  of  the  same  declension,  by  -/.  For  the 
consonants  it  will  be  sufficient  to  note 


K  =  C 

P  = 

:rh 

C  =  z 

^  =  X 

77  = 

:ng 

^  =  th 

yK  = 

nc 

<^  =  ph 

7X  = 

nch 

X  =  ch 

7^  = 

nx 

i/'  =  ps 

Some  examples  will  illustrate  these  rules  of  translitera- 

tion. 

*AAk/ai}vi7, 

Alcmene. 

'A^iyny, 

Athene. 

Ev/xora?, 

Eurotas. 

'EvpvSUrj, 

Eurydice. 

•Ep/x^s, 

Hermes. 

AeXra, 

Delta. 

nA.ovro9, 

Plutus. 

NtKtia?, 

Nicias. 

NtKata, 

Nicaea. 

Atytcr^o?, 

Aegisthus. 

Aiyc's, 

Aegis. 

Oi8i7rov9, 

Oedipus. 

BowoTto, 

Boeotia. 

Aapcios, 

Darius. 

AvToAvKOS, 

Autolycus. 

E  1^771/77, 

Irene. 

Bv^avTiov, 

Byzantium. 

AcX<^ot, 

Delphi. 

MtA7/ro9, 

Miletus. 

Eav^o9, 

Xanthus. 

Xapwv, 

Charon. 

XX077, 

Chloe. 

f^yj). 

Psyche. 

*'Ay/cupa, 

Ancyra. 

"AyycAo?, 

Angelus. 

2<A^7^, 

Sphinx. 

PRONUNCIA  TION 


237 


Rules  for  the  Pronunciation  of  the  Latinized  Forms. 
These  are  condensed  from  the  rules  given  in  Walker's 
Enghsh  dictionary,  and  were,  so  far  as  I  am 
able  to  discover,  first  formulated  by  him  and  Rules  for 
pubhshed  in  179 1.   They  may  well  claim,  then,  ^^^^^ 
to  be  accepted  by  all,  as  they  merely  formu- 
late what  was  the  usage  of  his  time,  because  representing 
principles  which  have  been   followed   for  at  least  one 
hundred  years,  and  which  are  well  known  and  thoroughly 
established.     I  see  no  hope  for  uniformity  on  any  other 
basis  than  this : 

1 .  Every  vowel  with  the  accent  on  it  at  the  end  of  a 
syllable  is  pronounced,  as  in  English,  with  its  first  long 
open  sound :  thus,  Philomela,  Orion,  Phocion,  Lucifer 
have  the  accented  vowels  sounded  exactly  as  in  the 
words  me'tre,  spider,  noble,  tutor. 

2.  Every  accented  vowel  not  ending  a  syllable,  but 
followed  by  a  consonant,  has  the  short  sound,  as  in  Eng- 
lish :  thus,  Manlius,  Pentheus,  Col'chis,  Cur  tins  have 
the  short  sound  of  the  accented  vowels,  as  in  manner^ 
plenty,  cotlar,  curfew. 

3.  Every  final  i,  though  unaccented,  has  the  long 
open  sound. 

4.  Every  unaccented  i  ending  a  syllable  not  final,  as 
that  in  the  second  oi  Alcibiades,  is  pronounced  like  e,  as 
if  written  Alcebiades. 

5.  The  diphthongs  ae  and  oe,  ending  a  syllable  with 
the  accent  on  it,  are  pronounced  like  the  long  English  e, 
as  in  Caesar,  Oeta,  as  if  written  Ceesar,  Kta.  They  are 
pronounced  like  the  shorts  when  followed  by  a  consonant 
in  the  same  syllable. 

6.  Fis  exactly  under  the  same  predicament  as  i.  It 
is  long  when  ending  an  accented  syllable  as  Cyrus,  short 
when  joined  to  a  consonant  in  the  same  syllable  as 
Lycidas;  and  [sometimes]  long  [and  sometimes  short] 


238  PRONUNCIATION 

when  ending  an  initial  syllable  not  under  the  accent. 
Lycurgiis  is  pronounced  with  the  first  syllable  like  lie. 
Present  usage  treats  all  cases  as  long,  so  that  I  have 
modified  Walker's  rule  as  indicated  by  the  bracketed 
words. 

7.  E  final,  either  with  or  without  the  preceding  con- 
sonant, always  forms  a  distinct  syllable,  as  Penelope 
(four-syllabled).  But  whenever  a  Greek  or  a  Latin  word 
is  anglicized  into  this  termination  by  cutting  off  a  syllable 
of  the  original,  it  becomes  then  an  Enghsh  word,  and  is 
pronounced  according  to  our  own  analogy.  Thus,  Hecate 
pronounced  in  three  syllables  when  in  Latin  and  in 
the  same  number  in  the  Greek  word  'E/car?;,  in  English 
is  contracted  into  two.  [This  holds  for  Shakspere,  but 
is  against  the  present  usage.]  Kprirr)  has  become  in 
English  Crete,  ^vpaxova-ai  similarly  is  Syracuse,  while 
Thebes  and  Athens  have  received  the  English  plural 
sign  s. 

The  Consonants, 

1.  ^'and^  are  hard  before  consonants,  and  the  vow- 
els a,  0,  11.  They  are  soft  before  e,  /,  j,  and  the  diph- 
thongs ae  and  oe. 

2.  T,  s,  and  c  before  ta,  ie,  ii,  io,  iu,  -yo,  and  eu  pre- 
ceded by  the  accent,  change  into  sh  and  zh.  *HcrioSo9, 
Hesiodus,  Hezhiod.  But  where  the  accent  is  on  the  first 
of  these  two  vowels,  the  consonant  preserves  its  sound 
pure.  So  MtXriaS?/?,  Miltiades  pronounced  Milti'adeSy 
like  satiety. 

3.  Ch  before  a  vowel  is  like  k. 

4.  Sche  beginning  a  word  is  like  sk. 

5.  Ph  followed  by  a  consonant  is  mute.  <l>^tG)Ti9, 
Phthiotis  sounds  as  Thio'tis. 


PRONUNCIA  TION 


239 


Rules  for  the  English  Quantity  of  Greek  mid  Latin 
Proper  Names. 

1.  Words  of  two  syllables,  with  one  consonant  in  the 
middle,  have  the  long  sound  of  the  first  vowel  whatever 
its  quantity  may  be    in    the   original :    thus, 

AucTi?,  Lysis,  is  pronounced  Lysis,  although  Rules  for 
V  in  the  Greek  is  short.  Similarly  ChareZy  5"^^5^ 
Greek  'KdpT]<;  (a)  ;  Menon,  Mevcov. 

2.  Words  of  three  syllables  with  the  accent  on  the 
first,  and  with  but  one  consonant  after  the  first  syllable, 
have  that  syllable  pronounced  short,  let  the  Greek  or 
Latin  quantity  be  what  it  will.  —  Exception.  When  the 
first  syllable  is  followed  by  e  or  /  followed  by  another 
vowel,  the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  is  long  unless  it  be  the 
vowel  i  or  y.  Examples  :  T?JXe<^09,  Telephus,  TeV ephus  ; 
OlSlttov^,  Oedipus,  Ed'ipus.  Examples  under  the  excep- 
tion are  Bopea<;,  Boreas,  Bo'reas  ;  Aafxla^  Lamia,  Lamia; 
and  of  I  and  y  under  this  condition,  NZ/cia?,  Nicias, 
Nish'ias ;  AvBla,  Lydia,  Lyd'ia, 

3.  The  general  tendency  is  to  shorten  every  accented 
antepenultimate  vowel  or  diphthong  (the  term  antepe- 
nultimate  is  used  to  denote  any  vowel  preceding  the  pe- 
nult of  the  word)  unless  followed  in  the  next  syllable  by 
e  or  i  and  another  vowel.  In  this  case  the  quantity 
follows  the  exception  to  Rule  2. 

The  accent  is  determined  by  the  rule  for  Latin  words. 
If  the  penult  is  long  in  words  of  more  than    and  for 
two  syllables,  it  receives  the  accent.     If  the      "^"^' 
penult  is  short,  the  accent  is  placed  on  the  antepenult. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

REFERENCES 

For  the  matters  treated  in  this  and  the  following  chapters,  the  teacher 
who  commands  the  use  of  German  will  find  many  suggestions  and  much 
help  in  various  numbers  of  the  Lehrprobeti  und  Lehrgdnge  aus  der  Praxis 
der  Gymnasien  und  RealschuUn,  Halle,  1885,  and  still  continued  in 
monthly  numbers.  In  general,  also,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  trea- 
tise by  Dr.  P.  Dettweiler  in  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs  und  Uiiterrichtslehre, 
edited  by  A.  Baumeister,  vol.  iii.,  Munich,  1898,  and  to  the  article  Grie- 
chisches  Unterrkkt  in  vol.  iii.  of  Encyklopddisches  Handbuch  der  Pddagogik, 
edited  by  Rein,  Langensalza,  1897.  See  also  the  bibliography  indicated 
on  p.  8  f. 

Books  for  First  Readings. 

Moss,  C.  M.  A  First  Greek  Reader  with  Notes  and  Vocabulary. 
Boston,  Allyn  &  Bacon.     1900. 

Colson,  F.  H.  Stories  and  Legends.  A  First  Greek  Reader,  with 
Notes,  Vocabulary,  and  Exercises.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany.    1899. 

As  auxiliary  to  the  work  in  the  earlier  stages,  T.  D.  Goodell's  The 
Greek  in  English  is  valuable.  The  author  takes  pains  to  point  out  in  a 
very  clear  manner  the  way  in  which  Greek  words  and  stems  are  used 
in  coining  terms  in  modern  English. 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  now  represented  in 
books  for  beginners  in  Greek.  One  of  these,  and  the 
Two  Methods  one  more  generally  followed  at  present,  aims 
now  in  Use.  ^q  present  an  amount  of  material  "  which  can 
be  completed  in  two  terms,  and  which  will  properly  pre- 
pare pupils  for  the  rapid  but  exact  reading  of  a  book  of 
the  Anabasis  during  the  last  third  of  the  year."  The 
books  written  on  this  plan  contain  all  the  necessary 
grammar  material,  and  their  use  permits  the  postpone- 
ment of  the  direct  use  of  the  grammar  until  the  reading 


THE   BEGINNING    WORK 


241 


of  a  text  is  begun.  For  this  method  the  claim  of  sim- 
plicity is  made,  and  justly.  The  student  is  not  obliged 
to  make  use  of  more  than  one  book  at  the  start.  It  is 
certainly  simpler  for  him  to  have  selected  for  his  use 
the  portions  of  the  grammar  which  he  needs.  In  fact, 
I  think  it  might  be  said  that  this  is  but  a  further  and 
reasonable  step  in  the  process  of  reduction  of  amount 
by  which  the  "  school  grammar  "  is  made  from  a  com- 
plete grammar  of  the  language.  Whether  this  simplifi- 
cation is  wise  or  not,  is  another  question.  If  Greek 
were  the  first  foreign  language  studied,  I  think  there 
could  be  little  question  as  to  its  desirability.  But  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  boy  beginning  Greek  has  already  had 
at  least  one  year  of  work  in  Latin.  In  this  year  of  study 
he  must  have  learned  the  use  of  a  grammar,  and  the 
way  to  get  from  it  the  help  he  needs  in  any  particular 
place. 

The  books  of  the  second  type  involve  the  use  of  the 
grammar  from  the  outset.  In  them  references  are 
made  at  the  beginning  of  each  lesson,  or  section,  to  the 
portions  of  the  grammar  needed  for  that  lesson.  Each 
lesson  is  furnished  with  a  vocabulary  of  the  words  used 
in  it,  and  contains  sentences  for  translation  from  Greek 
into  English  and  vice  versa,  much  like  the  books  of  the 

class  first  mentioned.     This  method  has  an 

,       .  .        ,  ^        r         Value  of 

advantage  m  that  it  trams  the  student  from  knowing  how 

the  first  lesson  to  use  the  grammar,  and  the 
grammar  is  the  book  which  must  be  con- 
stantly in  his  hands  during  his  first  two  or  three  years 
of  reading.  I  think  this  a  very  considerable  advantage. 
Most  teachers  know  by  experience  how  helpless  stu- 
dents are  when  in  beginning  the  reading  of  a  text  they 
are  compelled  for  the  first  time  to  refer  to  the  gram- 
mar for  rules  and  for  paradigms.  Now,  if  this  habit  of 
referring  directly  to  the  grammar  is  formed  at  the  be- 

16 


to  use  the 
Grammar. 


242 


THE  BEGINNING   WORK 


ginning,  the  labour  of  the  early  lessons  is  not  very  much 
increased.  The  teacher's  advice  and  help  in  learning 
the  use  of  the  grammar  removes  many  difficuhies.  The 
student  gains  in  this  way  gradually  and  surely  the  famil- 
iarity with  the  arrangement  of  material  in  the  grammar 
which  is  absolutely  essential  to  satisfactory  progress. 
The  difficulties  of  this  plan  are  more  numerous  at  first, 
but  I  beHeve  time  is  gained  in  the  end.  By  this  method, 
too,  one  avoids  the  feeling  of  discouragement  so  often 
brought  about  by  the  apparent  ''  beginning  all  over 
again "  in  grammatical  study. 

The  choice  of  a  method,  however,  is  of  far  less  impor- 
tance than  the  thorough  mastery  of  the  method  he  is 

using  by  any  teacher.  The  ae^e  of  the  mem- 
The  Teacher  o     j        j  o 

is  greater        bers  of  a  class  is  an  important  factor.     The 

2^^  number  of  students  in  a  class  is  also  of  im- 
Method. 

portance,  as  it  determmes  the  amount  of  per- 
sonal drill  which  each  individual  can  receive. 

The  secret  of  success  in  the  first  year's  work  in  Greek 
does  not  depend  upon  method  one  half  so  much  as 
upon  the  teacher.  I  wish  to  point  out  the  matters  upon 
which  I  think  emphasis  should  be  laid,  and  whose  im- 
portance is  not  in  any  way  dependent  upon  the  method 
followed.  As  regards  various  short  cuts  to  a  knowledge 
of  Greek,  or  of  reading  Greek,  by  whatever  names  they 
are  called,  —  "natural  method,"  "inductive  method," 
"  gate,"  etc.,  —  I  will  say  once  for  all  that  I  have  no  faith 
in  them.  As  I  have  said,  and  as  I  firmly  believe,  the 
teacher  is  greater  than  any  method,  and  I  willingly  ad- 
mit that  in  the  hand  of  an  able  and  thorough  teacher  any 
particular  method  may  be  made  to  yield  first-rate  results. 
I  believe,  however,  with  equal  firmness  that  it  is  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  teacher  that  is  the  efficient  factor  in  the 
result,  and  not  the  virtue  of  the  method  he  employs. 

(a)    The  First  Paradigms  of  Conjugation.     The  best 


THE  BEGINNING    WORK  243 

verb  to  start  with  is  a  pure  verb  of  three  syllables  Hke 
/ceXeuft).  This  is  easier  to  pronounce  than  Xvct),  for  v 
is  not  an  easy  sound.  It  affords  in  the  first  The  best  Verb 
aorist  a  better  opportunity  of  noting  the  for  the  start, 
normal  accentuation  of  imperative  and  infinitive.  E.g. 
KeXevaov  and  KeXevaac,  are  more  helpful  to  a  student 
than  Xvcrov  and  Xvaai.  The  latter  suggest  that  all  verbs 
are  accented  in  these  forms  on  the  penult,  and  further 
that  the  infinitive  of  the  first  aorist  (a  very  common 
form)  should  always  have  the  circumflex.  Kekevcrai 
does  not  suggest  this  last  inference,  because  the  graphic 
designation  by  the  diphthong  ev  is  less  misleading. 
The  present  and  imperfect  indicative  of  a  few  verbs  and 
their  present  infinitive  forms  (it  is  a  mistake  to  postpone 
the  infinitive  to  a  much  later  time)  should  be  thoroughly 
memorized.  These  forms  should  be  analyzed  both 
orally  and  in  writing :  thus,  i-KeXevo-v,  e-/ceXeue-?,  i-KeXeve. 
This  should  be  continued  until  the  pupil  is  able  from 
any  stem  given  him  to  speak  and  write  correctly  the 
forms  called  for. 

In  inflection,  the  dual  forms  of  verbs  and  nouns  are 
best  omitted  altogether.  The  best  beginners'  books 
recommend  this  omission  now,  though  none  omission  of 
of  them,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  taken  the  Daai  Forms, 
logical  and  desirable  step  of  omitting  dual  forms  from 
their  paradigms,  or  of  placing  them  afier  the  plural 
forms  or  printing  them  in  smaller  type.  Dual  forms  are 
not  necessary  for  the  beginner's  book,  nor  should  he  be 
given  exercises  containing  them.  When  met  with  in 
reading,  and  this  will  not  be  a  frequent  occurrence, 
they  can  be  explained  by  the  teacher,  if  this  is  not 
done  in  the  notes  on  the  passage.  I  doubt  if  the  dual 
had  ever  acquired  a  place  in  beginners'  books  were  it 
not  for  the  fact  that  there  are  a  few  examples  of  it  in 
the  opening  sections  of  the  Anabasis. 


244 


THE  BEGINNING    WORK 


It  is  best  to  add  to  the  forms  of  two  or  three  pure 
verbs  those  of  one  or  two  verbs  representing  severally  a 
Proper  se-  ^^^"^  ending  in  a  labial,  a  dental,  and  a  pala- 
Quenceof  tal  mute.  This  means,  in  addition  to  KeXevco 
Hew  Forms.  (^ffacnXevo)^  Tnarevco^  etc.) ,  Tre/jLirco,  Xeiirco ;  Treldco, 
yjrevSco;  Xeyco,  (j)evyci) ;  or  others  of  similar  formation. 
The  advantage  gained  by  the  introduction  of  these 
mute  stems  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  forming  their  future 
forms  the  pupil  has  an  opportunity  to  see  the  changes 
produced  by  the  addition  of  ?.  These  changes  are  so 
important  in  the  inflection  of  both  verbs  and  nouns  that 
they  are  best  introduced  at  a  very  early  moment.  The 
details  of  the  development  of  the  verb  inflection  —  t.  e., 
how  to  combine  the  successive  steps  in  the  inflection  of 
verbs  and  of  nouns  —  may  well  be  left  to  individual 
judgment,  or  to  the  method  of  the  book  in  use. 

There  is  one  practice,  very  common  indeed,  which 
seems  to  me  a  great  mistake,  vi^.,  introducing  the  forms 
of  the  perfect  at  an  early  stage  in  the  pupil's 
nottoDe  progress.     The  student  should  be  taught  that 

taught  too  the  present  (with  the  imperfect),  the  future, 
and  the  aorist  are  the  tenses  most  used.  With 
these  he  should  be  made  thoroughly  familiar  before 
going  to  any  others.  He  should  not  be  given  the  forms 
of  the  perfect  until  he  has  learned  that  in  Greek  the 
aorist  is  oftener  than  the  perfect  the  equivalent  of  the 
English  perfect.  The  perfect  tense  may  be,  and  I  think 
should  be,  ignored  or  postponed  until  the  student  has 
become  familiar  with  the  turning  of  such  English  phrases 
as  having  done,  having  said,  having  made  into  Greek 
aorist  forms.  If  the  perfect  be  brought  in  too  early  in 
the  lessons,  confusion  results  in  the  student's  mind. 
Furthermore  the  perfect  is  not  so  very  frequent  in  use 
as  to  justify  giving  it  an  equal  place  with  the  aorist  in 
beginners'  lessons.     In  the  first  book  of  the  Anabasis 


THE  BEGINNING   WORK 


245 


there  are  not  thirty  occurrences  of  forms  of  the  active 
perfect,  counting  both  first  and  second  perfect  forms. 
Of  these,  too,  nearly  one  half  are  from  the  two  verbs 
oil>a  and  Xarrjixi. 

See  further  remarks  on  this  subject  in  Chapter  V. 

(b)    The  Declensioji  of  Nouns.     I  regard  it  as  settled 
beyond  dispute  that  the  study  of  the  declensions  in  Greek 
should  begin  with  the  second,  or  -0,  declen-  Begin  with 
sion.       It    is    simpler    and    presents    fewer  -0  Declension 
varieties  of  forms.     To  make  the  difficulties  connected 
with  the  accents  easier,  the  first  lesson  should  consist  of 
paroxytones  only.   Both  masculine  and  neuter  ^^  ^^^^ 
examples  may   be   chosen.     This   will   give  according  to 
sufficient  words   for  exercises,  —  e.  g.  X6yo<;, 
v6iJLo<i,  ^LO<i,  ^tXo?,  vTTVo^i ;  Tof 01/,  epyov,  BevSpov.     This 
group  requires  no  change  in  the  place  of  the  accent  or 
in  its  kind.     The  second  group  may  include  proparoxy- 
tones  which  involve  a  change  in  the  place  of  the  accent 
but  not  in  the  kind  of  accent  used.     Thirdly,  the  pro- 
perispomena,  involving  change   of  kind  of  accent,  but 
not  of  its  place ;  and  lastly  the  oxytones.    I  should  favour 
devoting  one  lesson  to  each  group,  not  leaving  this  until 
the  principles  involved  are  thoroughly  mastered.     Ad- 
jectives may  be  given   in  connection  with  each  group. 
If  this  is  done,  care  must  be  taken  to  introduce  those 
only  which  are  identical  in  accentuation  with  the  nouns 
of  that  particular  group.     So  with  tTTTro?,  etc.  may  be 
given  oXt709,  i^eo?,  jxovo^,  but  not  /JLLtcp&i,  etc,  AppUcation  of 
With  the  material  now  in  hand  — the  second  Forms  learned, 
declension  of  nouns ;  the  present  and   imperfect  indica- 
tive and    the    present  infinitive  of  several  verbs;    the 
simpler  prepositions  Ik,  eV,  et?,  airo,  irpo ;   the   forms  ^v, 
Yjcrav,  €(1)7],  Kal,  'yap,  fiev,  Be,  ov  —  I  should  urge  the  most 
thorough  drill  in  forming  sentences  orally  and  in  writing. 
I  would  not  let  a  pupil  proceed  another  step  until  he  can 


246  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

write  these  forms  correctly  from  dictation,  and  can  re- 
peat them  when  heard  by  him.  Each  teacher  will  be 
the  best  judge  of  the  mastery  obtained  by  his  class,  and 
can  increase  the  number  of  exercises  here  at  will.^  Time 
spent  here  will  prove  to  be  time  saved  later.  There  is 
scope  for  considerable  reading  with  the  forms  of  the 
second  declension  alone.  See,  for  instance,  the  reading 
exercises  introduced  in  the  early  lessons  of  Sandys' 
First  Greek  Reader  and  Writer^  or  in  Forman's  First 
Greek  Book. 

Three  groups  are  necessary  in  taking  up  the  first  de- 
clension:  I.  stems  in  a;  2.  stems  in  -r]\  3.  stems  in  a. 
The  Forms  '^^^  all-important  rule  is  the  following :  a  is 
of  First  retained  in  the  case  terminations  throughout 

c  enaon.  ^^  singular  if  preceded  in  the  nominative  by 
e,  t,  /3,  and  in  the  accusative  singular  if  the  accent  of  the 
nominative  shows  that  the  a  is  short  in  quantity.  See 
the  statements  and  examples  in  the  grammars.  The  ex- 
ceptions may  be  neglected  at  this  stage.  Contract 
nouns  of  declensions  one  and  two  I  should  postpone  to 
a  later  time.  Feminine  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
and  masculine  nouns  of  the  first  declension  should 
come  next,  and  then  a  halt  in  studying  noun  declension 
until  the  present  middle  and  the  future  and  first  aorist 
active  of  verbs  have  been  thoroughly  mastered  and 
made  the  subjects  for  much  practice  in  writing  and  in 
speaking. 

At  this  point  the  inflection  and  use  of  09,  ovTO<^y  iKelvo<;, 

_^        and  avT6<;  with  perhaps  oSe  should  be  taken 
Demonstra- 

tivePro-         up  and  made  the  basis  of  drill  as  with  nouns, 
nouns.  'pj^g    subsequent   order  followed    in   the   de- 

velopment   of    forms    may    very   well    be    left    to    in- 

1  "  An  Experiment  in  Greek  Teaching,"  by  Mary  Whiton  Calkins, 
Educational  Review,  vol.  vii.  p.  80,  may  prove  suggestive  to  teachers 
who  wish  to  introduce  something  in  the  way  of  drill  in  pronunciation  and 
'n  knowledge  of  a  vocabulary. 


THE  BEGINNING    WORK 


247 


dividual  judgment.  I  think  the  battle  will  have  been 
won  at  this  point,  if  absolute  thoroughness  has  been 
maintained. 

(c)    The  Development  of  Syntax.     The  main  thing  to 
be  kept  in  mind  is  the  securing  of  familiarity  with  the 
most   frequently  used   forms  of  expression,  importance 
What  these  are  in  the  earlier  weeks  of  reading^  of  Knowledge 

•11  11         1  1  11  oflformal 

Will   naturally   depend    upon  the   author  or  and  Common 

work  chosen  for  the  first  reading.  In  our  ^sage. 
schools  this  is  now,  almost  without  exception,  Xenophon's 
Anabasis.  A  most  valuable  help  to  the  most  important 
facts  of  syntax  in  the  Anabasis  is  a  book  by  Artur 
Joost,  entitled  Was  ergiebt  sich  aus  dem  Sprachgebrauch 
Xenophons  in  der  Anabasis  fur  die  Behanalung  der 
griechischen  Syntax  in  der  ScJiule  ?  Berlin,  1892.  In 
connection  with  the  book  should  be  considered  Profes- 
sor Gildersleeve's  review  of  it  in  the  American  yournal 
of  Philology.  I  quote  here  from  Joost's  conclusions  on 
some  of  the  weightier  matters,  pages  337  ff . : 

''The  following  constructions  must  be  taken  up  at 
an  early  time  and  constantly  discussed  and  practised. 

"  I.  In  declension  the  placing  of  attributive  phrases 
between  the  article  and  the  noun,  or  after  the  noun  with 
repetition  of  the  article;  the  possessive  and  partitive 
genitive  (0  roO  ^i\ov  vl6^^  ol  ayadol  roiv  avOpcoircov,  rcov 
ao<^o3V  TL^).  The  prepositions  e/c,  iv,  ek,  avv,  cttl  with 
the  accusative,  tt/oo?  with  accusative  in  local  use,  Bid 
with  genitive  of  place,  Kara  with  accusative  of  place, 
rrepL  with  genitive  and  equal  to  about,  concerning,  irapd 
with  genitive,  airo  of  place,  hid  with  accusative,  eirC  with 
accusative  of  person  to  indicate  hostile  purpose,  against. 
The  dative  of  the  agent,  the  dative  with  elvat  or  ycyve- 
aOai  of  possession.  The  dative  of  manner,  of  time,  of 
cause,  with  verbs  compounded  with  a-vv.  The  '  accusa- 
tive of  extent  of  time  or  space,'  the  accusative  of  refer- 


248  THE  BEGINNING   WORK 

ence  (limitation),  double  accusative  with  verbs  of  making, 
etc.  The  use  of  the  article  for  the  possessive  pronoun. 
The  omission  of  the  article  with  the  noun  in  the  predi- 
cate. Such  uses  of  the  adjective  as  a<yad6v  ri,  ovSev 
KoXov. 

"  2.  In  treating  of  pronouns  the  syntax  of  the  relative 
must  receive  early  and  particular  attention,  in  its  ordi- 
nary use  as  relative  and  also  as  introducing  indirect  in- 
terrogative sentences.  Further  the  use  of  the  article 
as  pronoun,  and  with  modifying  genitive,  and  in  other 
phrases  without  a  noun  added. 

"3.  In  verb  syntax,  the  passive  construction  with 
inro  and  the  genitive  must  be  illustrated  early,  el  in 
simple  (logical)  conditions,  evret  and  eireihr}  with  imper- 
fect and  aorist  indicative  are  very  important,  and  equally 
so  ware  with  the  indicative,  and  on  and  iirel  used  in 
causal  clauses.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  subjunc- 
tive with  edv  ('rjv),  and  with  oTTft)?,  tW,  co?.  The  optative 
uses  of  most  importance  are  those  of  indirect  statement, 
in  indirect  question  and  the  potential  use  with  dv.  Fur- 
ther, the  optative  in  final  clauses  after  a  past  tense.  The 
infinitive  with  €(j)7]  is  all  important,  and  further  its  use  with 
Set,  SoKel,  e^eaTL,  in  result  clause  with  cSare,  with  Uavo^ 
and  similar  adjectives.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the 
infinitive  with  ^ovXofiaL,  eOiXco,  and  KeXevco,  and  to  the 
future  infinitive  with  verbs  of  hoping,  promising,  and 
the  like.  The  participle,  first  of  all  in  the  present,  then 
in  the  aorist,  is  to  be  carefully  studied  and  copiously 
illustrated  by  writing  exercises.  The  following  are  the 
more  important  uses:  Participles  in  the  nominative, 
representing  a  subordinate  clause,  which  are  to  be  trans- 
lated by  a  conjunction  with  finite  clause,  temporal  and 
causal.  Participles  both  with  and  without  the  article 
which  represent  a  relative  clause,  and  are  so  to  be 
translated.      The    object    participle    of   indirect    state- 


THE  BEGINNING   WORK  249 

ment  with  words  of  perception  and  sight,  and  also  on 
clauses  in  the  same  use.  The  participle  with  rv^x^^^i 
and  the  future  participle,  with  and  without  oo?,  to  express 
purpose." 

I  wish  to  add  or  enlarge  upon  a  few  points  which  my 
own  experience  has  shown  me  are  of  great  importance. 
First  of  all,  the  essential  difference  in  attribu-  i^^y^^f.^ 
tive  and  predicate  position.  This  should  be  ofWord- 
illustrated  in  writing  and  orally  by  such  ^^ 
phrases  as  at  ohol  r}<Tav  fiaKpaL  These  words  may 
easily  be  extended  by  the  addition  of  tt)?  vrjaov,  and  then 
eV  T7J  vrjaoi,  as  attributive  limitations  of  the  nominative. 
I  should  lay  special  emphasis  on  the  second  type  of 
attributive  phrases  —  i.  e.  a  preposition  with  a  case,  01 
Ik  TTJ^  vrjaov  dvOpcoiroL  —  because  I  find  so  often  a  com- 
plete failure  on  the  part  of  the  student  to  recognise  the 
collocation  and  dependence  of  the  words  in  such  sen- 
tences, and  consequently  a  failure  to  grasp  their  meaning. 
It  should  be  made  the  subject  of  practice  from  the  out- 
set. Teach  the  pupil  to  read  out  loud,  grouping  the 
associated  words  closely  together  in  his  enunciation,  and 
have  him  write  a  large  number  of  them,  making  all  the 
possible  combinations  of  the  words  given  him.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  train  his  eye  to  take  in  the  whole  group  at  a 
glance,  and  to  pronounce  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate 
its  unity  in  thought.  The  fact  that  an  English  relative 
clause  may  be  so  expressed  —  t/ie  men  who  were  in,  etc. — 
must  be  shown  and  illustrated  by  examples.  Thucydides, 
Book  I.  chapters  101-103,  affords,  in  the  phrase  ol  kv 
^lOcofirj,  or  ol  e/c  T^wytt?;?,  some  good  models  for  this. 

Keeping  the  words  already  chosen  for  a  model  sen- 
tence,  this   may   then    be    extended    by  the  3^11,1^^?  up 

addition  of  predicate  adjectives  connected  by  a  Model 

/J.//.  1  t    1^  \   -t^  /  \     "9  Sentence. 

fjL6v-de ;    tor  example,  ac  oool  oXiyaL  fiev  rjaav^ 

IxaKpal  8e.     Then  a  sentence  should  be  given  with  the 


250  THE  BEGINNING    WORK 

scheme  of  double  clauses  from  the  start,  as,  twz^  crrpaTi- 
(orcov  OL  jjLGV  KaKoX  rjaav,  ol  he  a^yaOoi^  or  ol  fiev  (TTparrj- 
7ot.  ,  .  ,  ol  Be  a-TpaTLcjTai.  .  .  .  Make  as  many  different 
combinations  of  sentences  as  possible  to  illustrate  these 
two  ways  of  using  fiev  .  .  .  Be,  Note  that  in  one  of  these 
the  subject  is  common  to  both  clauses,  while  the  predi- 
cate words  are  contrasted.  In  the  other  there  are  two 
subjects  standing  in  a  contrasted  relation  to  each  other. 
fie'v  .  .  .  Si  clauses  are  not  necessarily  mutually  exclusive. 
They  are  often,  strictly  speaking,  not  paratactic  at  all. 
Don't  be  afraid  of  spending  too  much  time  on  this  point. 
It  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Next  come  clauses  with 
yap  and  ovv.  The  meanings  and  the  proper  place  in  the 
clause  of  these  words  should  be  carefully  explained  and 
illustrated.  Then  let  the  students  add  clauses  involving 
their  use  to  the  model  sentence.  So  this  will  grow  by 
the  judicious  selection  of  clauses  to  be  added  to  it.  A 
very  few  sentences  may  be  made  to  illustrate  all  the 
more  important  principles  of  position  of  words  in  a 
clause  and  of  the  simpler  rules  of  syntax.  To  the  three 
simplest  prepositions,  each  with  one  case  only,  may  be 
added  tt/jo?  with  the  accusative,  aTro,  irepL  with  the  geni- 
tive, eV/with  the  accusative  in  the  meaning  against.  e(j)7] 
with  the  infinitive,  and  also  on,  that,  should  be  abun- 
dantly illustrated,  taking  care  that  the  on  clause  does 
not  require  the  optative  mood.  These  model  sentences 
should  be  well  fixed  in  the  pupil's  mind,  and  made  to 
take  the  place  of  a  constant  citing  of  grammar  rules. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  student  should 
be  made  familiar  with  the  joining  of  clauses  in  various 
The  Joining  relations  at  a  very  early  period  in  his  course 
of  Clauses.  j^  Greek.  The  majority  of  beginners'  books 
do  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  this  matter,  and  the 
result  is  that  students  who  have  had  drill  in  detached 
clauses  alone  stand  helpless  before  a  piece  of  connected 


THE  BEGINNING   WORK 


251 


writing,  no  matter  how  simple  it  may  be.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  use  of  Se,  and  of  clauses  with  yueV  .  .  . 
Se.  The  latter  method  of  joining  clauses  is  very  com- 
mon, and  I  have  spoken  of  it  above.  In  one  of  the  most 
widely  used  of  first-year  books,  I  find  that  iiiv  .  .  .  ^e, 
is  first  used  in  the  illustrative  exercises  of  the  sixteenth 
lesson,  and  is  there  accompanied  by  an  explanation  which 
seems  to  me  to  be  inadequate  to  the  full  comprehension 
of  its  value  and  use.  That  the  importance  of  this  con- 
struction is  not  realized  by  the  author,  seems  to  me  to  be 
evident  from  the  fact  that  in  the  first  twenty-six  lessons 
and  reading  exercises  it  is  used  eight  times  only.  In  the 
twenty-eighth  lesson,  however,  there  is  presented  as  an 
exercise  for  reading  about  half  a  page  of  original  Greek 
text.  In  this  passage  there  are  four  cases  of  \Jiiv  ,  .  .he 
clauses,  one  of  which  is  particularly  unsuitable  for  presen- 
tation to  a  beginner,  as  it  stands  in  a  passage  which  is 
almost  universally  modified  by  editors,  because  of  the 
peculiar  position  of  the  hi.  The  net  result  of  this  must, 
it  seems  to  me,  be  to  produce  confusion  in  the  pupil's 
mind.  In  another  beginners'  book  the  \iev  .  .  .  8e  arrange- 
ment is  first  introduced  in  the  sixteenth  lesson,  although 
before  that  point  a  number  of  forms  of  the  perfect  tense, 
rarely  found  in  use,  have  been  given.  Here  a  footnote 
to  /xeV  refers  the  student  to  the  vocabulary  at  the  end 
of  the  book,  where  the  statement  of  its  use  is  exceed- 
ingly vague.  In  forty  lessons  of  this  book,  covering  one 
hundred  pages,  there  are  fourteen  sentences  with  the 
y^ev  .  .  .  8e  construction,  and  of  these,  two  are  decidedly 
confusing  instances.  Taking  these  two  books,  and  they 
are  not  bad  books  by  any  means,  as  typical,  it  seems  to 
me  evident  that  this  very  important  point  is  not  ade- 
quately treated.  This  use  should  be  constantly  ex- 
plained, illustrated,  and  made  the  basis  for  practice.  It 
is  difficult  work,  at  the  best,  to  acquire  a  feeling  for  the 


252 


THE  BEGINNING    WORK 


meaning  of  the  particles,  and  this  result  can  be  reached 
only  by  a  familiarity  gained  through  much  reading  and 
many  repetitions  of  the  words.  An  instructive  parallel 
is  afforded  by  the  German y<^.  If  a  boy  is  told  that  this 
means  yes,  and  is  given  sentences  which  illustrate  this 
meaning  and  use  of  the  word  alone,  he  must  either  ig- 
nore its  presence  in  many  a  sentence  met  with  in  read- 
ing, or  translate  falsely.     See  more  on  this  in  Chapter  V. 

(d)  Further  Work  in  the  Study  of  Forms.  Notms, 
Third  Declension.  Begin  with  the  palatal  stems  and 
other Houns  continue  with  labial  and  dental  stems,  then 
and  Verbs,  nasal  Stems.  The  neuter  noun  stems  in  -a  (r) 
and  in  -o?  (-e?)  may  follow.  Vowel  stems  in  -i  and  -v 
should  be  postponed  to  the  last,  as  they  present  confus- 
ing divergences  from  the  normal  scheme  of  inflection. 

The  development  of  verb  forms  may  be  carried  out 
according  to  individual  judgment  or  to  the  method  of 
the  textbook  in  use.  I  think,  however,  that  contract 
verbs  should  not  be  postponed  too  long.  They  may 
well  be  taken  up,  especially  those  in  -eo),  as  soon  as  the 
noun  inflection  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
contraction.  For  a  convenient  classification  of  verbs 
according  to  their  forms  of  conjugation,  the  following 
scheme  may  be  of  assistance : 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  VERBS 

A.     Verbs  with  stems  in  -w.     Thematic  Verbs. 

1.  Pure  verbs  —  Stem  ends  in  a  vowel. 

a.  Stems  in  t,  v,  or  diphthong,  not  contracted. 

b.  Stems  in  a,  e,  o.     Contract  verbs. 

2.  Verbs  with  stems  ending  in  a  consonant. 

a.  Labial  stems  in  tt,  /?,  </>.  > 

b.  Dental  stems  in  t,  8,  B-  )■   Mute  verbs. 

c.  Palatal  stems  in  k,  y>  x*  ^ 

d.  Liquid  (nasal)  stems  in  A,  /x,  v,  p. 


THE  BEGINNING   WORK 


253 


B.  Verbs  in  -/xt. 

These  differ  in  form  of  inflection  in  the  present,  im- 
perfect, and  second  aorist,  active  and  middle. 

Further  help  on  the  question  of  the  second  aorist 
may  be  gained  by  noting  the  following  Hst  of  verbs  in 
-ft>,  otherwise  regular  in  their  inflection,  which  make 
aorists  of  the  so-called  second  form.  a7a>,  fidWco,  Kara- 
KaCvco,  dvaKpd^o),  XetTro),  tlkto).,  rpeTrct),  (^eifyo).  This  list 
should  be  copied  into  the  book  in  use,  and  gradually 
learned. 

Along  with  the  presentation  of  forms  will  go  naturally 
the  extension  of  syntactic   uses.     These  are  best  and 
most  surely  taught  by  means  of  composition  ^jjyancein 
exercises.     The    principles  made  prominent  study  of 
should  be  those  most  fundamentally  important  ^^*^- 
for  reading,  and  each  new  principle  should  be  immedi- 
ately illustrated  in  reading  and  applied  in  writing.     Prac- 
tice, and  practice  alone,  makes  perfect,  and  makes  easy 
as  well.     A  rule,  or  a  set  of  rules  learned,  but  not  actu- 
ally applied  in  use,  is  soon  forgotten. 

(e)  The  First  Reading.  The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon 
may  be  begun  at  the  earliest  moment  that  sufficient 
grammatical  knowledge  has  been  obtained  to  -what  to 
make  connected  reading  possible,  or  a  reader  read  first, 
made  up  of  simple  selections  of  progressive  difficulty 
may  be  taken  up  as  a  preparation  for  Xenophon.  The 
choice  of  method  here  must  depend  upon  the  kind  of 
introductory  book  which  has  been  used.  If  it  has  been 
one  in  which  connected  reading  has  been  carried  on 
from  the  first,  then  by  the  time  that  the  twenty  or 
twenty-five  weeks  devoted  to  its  study  have  been  com- 
pleted, the  pupil  is  quite  ready  to  go  on  with  the  Anaba- 
sis itself.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  book  has  afforded 
drill  in  reading  isolated  and  detached   sentences  only, 


254  ^^^  BEGINNING    WORK 

then  a  book  of  simple  prose  selections  is  better  adapted 
to  the  pupil's  knowledge.  For  reading  matter  ought 
never  to  be  so  difficult  that  some  considerable  amount 
of  it  cannot  be  covered  at  one  exercise.  Power  to  read 
comes  by  reading.  A  book  of  easy  passages  helps  to 
this  end.  Further,  it  enables  the  teacher  to  proceed 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  It  postpones  the  more 
difficult  points  in  construction  until  the  pupil  has  thor- 
oughly mastered  the  easier  ones.  It  affords,  too,  topics 
in  reading,  each  one  of  which  is  complete  in  itself.  This 
is  a  distinct  advantage,  and  helps  to  arouse  an  interest 
in  the  subject  matter,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  gained  if 
an  historical  narrative,  hke  the  Anabasis^  be  broken  up 
into  very  small  portions. 

There  is  a  third  way  represented   in  some  beginners' 

books  which  consists  in  introducing  from  the  first  lesson 

words,  phrases,  and   clauses  taken  from  the 

of  a"Siin°      Anabasis,  and,  as  fast  as  it  can  be  done,  much 

piified"  Qf  |-he  narrative  of  the  first  book,  with  what 

Anabasis. 

changes    in    the   way   of   simplification    are 

needed.  For  this  method  it  is  claimed  that  much  of 
the  reading  of  the  Anabasis  is  anticipated  and  accom- 
plished in  connection  with  the  grammar  lessons.  This 
is  certainly  true  in  part,  but  I  believe  only  in  part. 
Sentences  must  often  be  changed  from  their  original 
form  and  connection  to  avoid  constructions  not  yet 
learned.  All  stylistic  effect  is  thus  lost,  and  much 
of  the  real  syntax.  To  gain  a  real  knowledge  of  the 
story  as  told  by  Xenophon,  much,  if  not  all,  must  be 
read  over  again,  and  this  could  be  only  with  dimin- 
ished interest.  I  shall  leave  it  to  the  judgment  of 
the  teacher  who  wishes  to  form  an  opinion  on  this  point 
after  presenting  a  passage  of  Xenophon  (^Anabasis, 
I.  7,  4),  and  the  same  as  modified  for  use  in  a  beginners' 
book. 


THE  BEGINNING    WORK 


255 


OTTcos  Sc  icai  eiSi/TC  cis  otoi^  ep^^^cOc  dyo)va  v(ia<s  ctSoJs  8t8a^w.  to 
fiev  yap  7rXrjOo<;  ttoXv  koI  Kpavyy  TroWfj  iiriacnv  •  av  8e  ravra 
avd(r)(r)(r6€,  to,  aAAa  Kat  al(T)(yv€(T6ai  fjiOL  Sokio  olovs  rjixlv  yvoi(T€.crBe 
Tovs  €1/  rrj  xoipa  ovras  dj/^pwTrovg.  v/xwv  Se  dvSpwv  ovrtov  Kat  cS  rajv 
€|UO>v  yevo/xevcov,  cyw  v^ucov  rov  /u,ev  ot/caSe  jSovXofiivov  drrLtvai  rots 
ot/coi  ^ryAojTov  ttoit^cto}  aTrcX^eiv,  ttoAXovs  8c  o?/iat  TroiT^crcii/  to,  Trap' 
e/xot  kXia-dai  dvri  twv  oikoi. 

As  "  simplified,"  or  "  adapted,"  this  reads  as  follows : 

*Eya)  8c  CIS  olov  ep)(€crOe  dyQ)va  Vfxd<i  StSd^w.  to  fieu  yap  ttXtjOo^ 
tCjv  ftap^dpoiv  TToXv  cort  Kat  Kpavyij  TroXXfj  cTrcp^ovrat  *  av  Sk 
ravra  dvdcrxqa-Oi,  to,  oAAa  atcr^vvo/xat  otot  r}p2v  ol  iv  rfj  X^P^  cto-tv 
dvOpwTTOL.  iav  Se  vfx€L<s  dvSp€<;  ^re  Kat  €v  rd  ifid  ycrjyrat,  cyw  'u/xiov 
Tov  fieu  otKaSc  fiovXofxevov  aTriXOeiv  t,r]Xu)Tov  ttoltJo-o}  rots  oiKoif 
TToXXovq  Sc  otjLtat  jSovXi^a-ea-OaL  Trap*  c^oi  fieveuv. 


CHAPTER   III 

XENOPHON   AND   OTHEB  PKOSE   WRITERS  —  THE 
GREEK   NEW   TESTAMENT 

REFERENCES. 

Rehdantz,  C.  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  sixth  edition,  by  Dr.  Otto 
Carnuth.  Berlin,  Weidmann.  This  is  the  edition  of  the  Anabasis  of 
fundamental  importance  for  the  grammatical  study  of  the  work.  It  con- 
tains notes  in  German  on  all  of  the  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  speech 
as  illustrated  in  the  text,  with  many  cross  references  to  other  passages. 
Its  great  lack  is  an  index  of  words  and  of  passages.  The  book  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  who  can  use  German. 

Pretor,  Alfred.  The  Anabasis  of  Xenophon  with  English  notes. 
Two  vols.  I.  Text.  II.  Notes  and  Indices.  Cambridge,  The  Univer- 
sity Press.     An  excellent  edition  of  the  entire  work  with  English  notes. 

White,  John  T.  Grammar  School  Texts.  Xenophon's  Anabasis. 
Each  Book  separately,  with  a  vocabulary  to  each.  Very  convenient  for 
supplementary  reading,  or  for  the  reading  of  a  small  amount  of  the 
Anabasis.     London  and  New  York,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Rolfe,  A.  G.  The  Fifth  Book  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis  with  notes 
and  vocabulary.     Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.,  1897. 

White,  J.  W.,  and  Morgan  M.  H.  An  Illustrated  Dictionary  to 
Xenophon's  Anabasis.  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.  An  excellent  and  val- 
uable work. 

Blake,  R.  W.  The  Hellenica  of  Xenophon,  Books  I.  and  II.  Boston, 
Allyn  &  Bacon,  1894. 

Gleason,  C.  W.  The  Cyropaedia  of  Xenophon  Abridged  for  Schools. 
New  York,  American  Book  Company,  1897. 

Phillpots  and  Jerram.  Easy  Selections  from  Xenophon,  Parts  of 
the  Anabasis.  The  earlier  pieces  are  "  simplified."  Oxford,  The  Clar- 
endon Press.  Same  authors.  Selections  adapted  from  Xenophon. 
Passages  from  the  Hellenica.     Same  publishers. 

For  the  various  questions  of  syntax,  the  discussions  scattered  through 
the  volumes  of  the  American  Journal  of  Philology,  now  in  its 
twentieth  year.  Many  of  these  discussions  are  by  the  editor.  Professor 
B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  himself,  and  most  of  the  rest  by  his  associates  or 
pupils.  A  full  list  of  books  may  be  found  in  the  edition  of  the  first  four 
books  of  the  Anabasis  by  F.  W.  Kelsey,  published  by  Allyn  &  Bacon, 
Boston. 


PROSE    WRITERS 


257 


Almost  without  exception  Xenophon's  Anabasis  of 
Cyrus  is  the  first  piece  of  Hterature  taken  up  by  the 
student  of  Greek.  Therefore,  while  much  of  The  First 
his  work  must  be  directed  towards  the  extend-  literature, 
ing  of  his  grammatical  knowledge,  there  is  a  natural  de- 
sire on  his  part  to  reap  some  fruit  from  the  labour  of  the 
previous  months,  and  a  feeHng  that  the  time  for  such 
reaping  has  arrived.  The  reading  of  this  work  then 
should  mean  something  more  than  a  continuation  of 
grammar  work.  It  should  bring  some  pleasure  in  a 
feeling  of  power  gained,  and  in  a  consciousness  of 
ability  to  get  at  the  subject  matter  and  to  reach  the 
thought  contained  in  the  words.  To  meet  this  reason- 
able wish  the  reading  must  not  proceed  at  too  slow  a 
pace.  If  the  introductory  work  has  been  well  and  truly 
done,  a  rate  of  advance  in  the  reading  now  will  be  pos- 
sible which  will  keep  the  student  interested  in  the  story 
being  told  and  in  its  development. 

The  hour,  or  even,  in  many  cases,  shorter  time,  of  the 

daily  recitation  affords  a  very  inadequate  opportunity 

for  the  treatment  of  the  many  points  of  in-  „  ^, 

1-1  .  1     ,  ^^       Problem  of 

terest  which,  are  sure  to  arise  each  day.     The  the  Recitation 

great  problem,  as  I  see  the  state  of  the  case,  ^°^' 
is,  *'  What  shall  be  done  in  the  recitation  period  and  what 
shall  be  left  untouched  ?  "  It  is  manifestly  impossible  to 
do  all  that  the  teacher  sees  to  be  done,  or  anywhere  near 
all.  The  question  is  one  of  selection.  I  shall  attempt 
to  make  some  suggestions  as  di^'ect  and  as  specific  as 
possible. 

First.     The  recitation  hour  should  not  be  made  an 
hour  for  a  daily  examination  alone.     The  teacher  ought 
not  to  spend  these  few  and  precious  moments 
entirely  in  questioning  the  pupils  about  things  is  not  Exam- 
learned  at  home,   or  even    those    explained  ^^'^^' 
previously  in  the  classroom.    To  devote  all  the  time  to 

17 


258  PROSE   WRITERS 

this  means  to  lose  the  finest  opportunity  for  instruction^ 
in  the  best  sense  of  the  word.  Something  in  the  nature 
of  examination  is  necessary.  But  with  earnest  students 
the  result  sought  —  to  know  how  well  they  understand 
matters  previously  studied,  or  how  thorough  has  been 
their  home  preparation  —  can  be  reached  by  inviting 
the7n  to  ask  questions  on  all  points  not  understood. 
Individual  difficulties  thus  presented  will  in  most  cases 
cover  all  the  more  difficult  points,  and  the  students  are 
spared  the  tiresome  exercise  of  listening  to  statements 
of  what  they  know. 

Second.  Parsings  as  commonly  understood,  should 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is,  if  at  all  prolonged,  a 
"Parsing"  dreary  exercise,  and  when  applied  to  sen- 
kiiis  Interest,  tences  which  have  been  already  analyzed  and 
whose  meaning  has  already  been  discovered,  it  is  certainly 
a  hysteroti-proteron.  Nothing  so  surely  takes  the  life  out 
of  the  exercise,  and  the  interest  in  the  work  out  of  the 
pupils,  and  specially  out  of  the  brightest  and  quickest  of 
them.  Some  explanation  in  class  of  forms  and  of  syntac- 
tic problems  there  must  be,  but  it  should  be  confined  to 
those  that  have  proved  difficult  for  the  class,  that  have 
not  been  mastered  by  private  study,  or  that  have  been 
brought  out  by  a  faulty  or  inadequate  translation.  The 
student  must  be  made  to  feel  that  the  recita- 

Recitation  .        ,  ...,.,  .  , 

must  i)ean      tion  hour  IS  a  time  m  which  progress  is  made. 

Hour  of  5q  much  by  way  of  caution.    Positively  I  sug- 

gest the  following  method :  The  first  lesson 
to  be  read  is  taken  up  in  class  at  the  first  exercise  in  the 
subject,  and  before  any  attempt  at  preparation  has  been 
made  by  the  pupils  themselves.  The  teacher  should  point 
out  the  more  difficult  forms  and  constructions,  showing 
those  which  have  been  already  met  with  and  those  which 
are  new.  In  particular  it  is  important  to  point  out  that 
any  roots  already  known  may  be  found  in  words  that 
are  new. 


PROSE   WRITERS 


259 


To  illustrate  what  I  mean  I  will  take  examples  from 

the  opening   sections  of  the  Anabasis.    rjaOevei.     The 

form  is  in  the  imperfect.    Why?    The  accent 

(compare  i^lXei)  shows  that.     Hence  it  has  {^cesof 

at  the  beginning  an  augmented  vowel.     This  Anabasis  as 
,  .      ^        r  V  mustration. 

vowel  may  be  a,  as  m  97701^  Irom  a<y(i>^  or  e,  as 

in  7]6e\ov  from  iOeXco.  This  suggests  iaOevew  or  aaOeveco. 
Possibly  aadevrj^  or  aOevo^  has  been  already  learned.  If 
not,  adevo^  may  be  written  on  the  blackboard,  and  the 
others  derived  from  it,  and  the  English  derivatives  cal- 
listhenics and  asthenic  may  be  pressed  into  service  by 
way  of  fixing  the  meaning  of  the  root  word.  vTrwirreve 
should  be  first  analyzed,  and  then  the  meaning  of  the 
prefix  explained  and  illustrated  by  the  Latin  su(Jj)spicio. 
irapcuv  eTU7%ai^e  needs  careful  explanation,  if  not  already 
familiar.  In  Greek  the  participle  contains  the  leading 
or  chief  idea  of  the  expression  and  the  verb  the  subor- 
dinate thought.  In  English  the  expression  is  constructed 
in  the  reverse  way.  The  uses  of  the  tenses  of  the  verb 
and  of  the  supplementary  participle  should  be  explained, 
model  sentences  framed  to  illustrate  them,  and  exercises, 
oral  and  written,  based  upon  these  principles.  The 
present  participle  with  the  present  or  imperfect  of  the 
verb  is  found  in  three  fourths  of  all  occurrences  of  this 
idiom,  and  should  be  made  the  basis  for  illustration  of 
it.  The  uses  of  the  connecting  fteV  .  .  .he  should  be  dis- 
cussed. The  first  jiiv  .  .  .he  are  correlatives  without  any 
strong  opposition  implied  ;  the  second  he  is  connective 
and  nearer  in  meaning  to  a7id  than  to  but.  Then  again 
ixev . .  .he  almost,  but  not  quite,  as  in  the  first  case.  Then 
Kai,  emphasizing  a  single  word  and  not  a  copulative  con- 
junction as  in  the  first  sentence,  oaot,  as  many  as,  wlio^ 
suggests  the  use  of  these  correlatives.  In  connection 
with  this  the  tables  in  Goodwin's  Grammar,  §  429,  and  in 
Hadley  and  Allen,  §  282,  should  be  read  over  and  carefully 


26o  PROSE   WRITERS 

explained.  Special  note  should  be  made  of  the  differ- 
ence between  ovto^  and  Totoi)T09,  between  tolovto^  and 
TocroL'To?,  between  olo^  and  ocro?.  The  definite  article  and 
its  uses  should  receive  attention.  Note  its  omission  in 
Kao-TG)XoO  irehCov,  in  effect  a  proper  name.  Cf.  in  Eng- 
lish Marshfield.  ovv  is  once  used,  ^Iv  ovVy  to  sum  up 
the  story  to  that  point ;  that  is,  it  is  continuative  and  not 
equal  to  English  therefore.  It  is  once  resumptive  after 
the  digression  koX  aTparr^^ov  he  avrop  .  .  .  adpoL^ovTat. 
As  many  of  these  points  as  can  be  should  be  pointed  out 
and  explained  by  the  teacher,  and  the  passage  assigned 
for  recitation  on  the  following  day.  When  the  class 
meets  again,  this  portion  should  be  translated  by  the 
pupils,  who  should  be  urged  to  modify  their  renderings 
when  faulty  by  repeated  trials  until  a  translation  has 
been  obtained  which  shows  that  the  pupils  have  mastered, 
first,  the  meanings  pf  the  words,  second,  their  proper 
syntactic  relations  in  the  clause,  and,  third,  the  syntactic 
and  rhetorical  relation  of  the  clauses  in  the  period. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  in  this  connection 
to  the  emphasis  given  words  by  their  positions  in  the 
Order  of  clause.  For  instance,  in  section  two  of  the 
Words  and  its  passage  from  Afiadasis,  I.   i,  ava^atvet,  and 

portance.  farther  the  added  emphasis  of  the  /cat  before 
aTpaTTjyop^  and  the  extending  of  the  relative  construc- 
tion by  an  independent  clause.  Then,  last  of  all,  a  care- 
ful reading  of  the  Greek  text  with  special  attention  to 
the  pronunciation  of  the  words  so  as  to  show  their 
mutual  relations,  and  to  bring  out  the  meaning  clearly 
by  good  enunciation.  There  is  just  as  much  difference 
between  good  reading  and  bad  reading  in  Greek  as  in 
English.  Then  repeat  the  process  of  the  day  before  on 
a  new  portion  of  the  text.  I  should  not  advise  the 
pupil's  undertaking  at  first  new  passages  of  text  before 
these  have  been  considered  with  the  teacher.      Unlearn- 


PROSE   WRITERS  26 1 

ing  and  relearning  takes  more  time  than  learning,  and 
though  the  progress  of  the  class  may  be  slower  in  this 
way  for  a  while,  I  believe  that  through  increased  cer- 
tainty the  ultimate  gain  is  considerable. 

An  occasional  rapid  review  of  a  chapter  or  of  some 
larger  portion  of  the  narrative  which  is  complete  in 
itself,  is  of  great  value  in  aiding  the  pupil  to  get  an  idea 
of  the  subject  matter  and  of  the  movement  of  the  story. 

It  may  frequently  seem  best  not  to  include  an  entire 
book  of  the  Anabasis  in  the  first  reading,  but  omissions  in 
to  make  omissions.  The  selection  of  these  Reading. 
must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher,  and  he  will 
be  guided  in  making  the  omissions  by  the  capacity  and 
the  cleverness  of  the  particular  class  in  question.  Some 
classes  will  be  able  to  read  the  first  four  books  without 
any  omissions,  while  with  others  it  may  be  best  to  omit 
some  of  the  more  difficult  portions  at  the  first  reading, 
reserving  them  for  study  later  on.  In  book  one,  a  con- 
siderable part  of  chapter  two  and  much  of  chapter  four 
may  be  omitted  on  the  first  reading.  Chapter  six  is 
episodic,  and  may  be  postponed  without  interrupting  the 
story.  The  same  is  true  of  chapter  seven.  With  regard 
to  chapter  nine,  so  often  viewed  by  students  as  a  bug- 
bear, I  should  say  read  it  at  the  first  time.  It  marks  the 
close  of  the  first  great  division  of  the  history,  and  Cyrus 
does  not  figure  in  the  subsequent  narrative. 

In  book  two  I  should  recommend  the  omission  of 
chapter  six.  I  do  not  believe  that  it  is  of  an  importance 
commensurate  with  the  difficulties  it  presents  to  the 
student  with  no  further  preparation  for  it  than  he  has 
gained  in  reading  the  story  which  has  preceded  it. 
Enough  has  not  been  told  about  the  generals  to  make 
these  analyses  of  their  characters  of  particular  interest, 
and  the  facts,  if  they  are  considered  important,  can  be 
obtained  with  far  less  labour. 


262  PROSE    WRITERS 

Two,  or  possibly  three,  books  should  be  read  in  this 
careful  manner,  and  then  the  reading  should  be  more 
Increase  in  rapid.  The  range  of  discussion  on  topics 
Rapidity  connected  with  the  lesson  may  be  broadened, 
of  Reading.  ^^  ^^^  grammatical  interpretation  will  natur- 
ally demand  less  time.  This  difference  in  treatment  is 
recognised  in  the  plan  recommended  by  the  Committee 
of  the  American  Philological  Association,  and  is  a  thor- 
oughly reasonable  one.  No  slovenly  or  inaccurate  habits 
in  translation  should  be  tolerated  at  any  point  in  the 
course,  but  correct  habits  ought  to  be  fixed  by  this 
time,  and  so  a  more  rapid  rate  of  progress  be  possible 
without  sacrifice  of  accuracy.  The  subject  matter  in- 
creases in  interest,  in  my  opinion,  from  the  beginning  of 
book  three.  From  this  point  Xenophon  becomes  the 
central  figure  of  the  story.  His  account  of  his  joining 
the  expedition,  of  his  dream,  told  at  the  beginning  of 
book  three,  and  of  the  reorganization  of  the  army  and 
the  choice  of  new  generals  is  interesting  and  instructive. 
The  last  named  shows  us  the  army  as  a  typical  self-gov- 
erning political  community  with  its  attendant  individual 
insubordination  and  independence  of  thought  and 
speech.  The  long  speech  of  Xenophon,  III.  2,  8-32, 
may  be  considerably  cut  down  in  length.  From  this 
point  the  story  is  full  of  exciting  scenes  and  situations. 
Book  four  gives  much  interesting  information  about  the 
manner  of  living  of  the  tribes  the  Greeks  met  with  on 
the  northward  march.  The  terrors  of  a  winter  in  the 
highland  and  mountains  of  Armenia  have  never  been 
better  described.  The  passage  at  the  end  of  the  first 
chapter  and  the  beginning  of  the  second  may  be  left 
out.  It  is  hard  to  understand,  and  the  facts  may  easily 
be  summarized.  So  book  four  is  brought  to  an  end  at 
a  fairly  rapid  rate,  and  with  it  comes  the  end  of  the 
normally  prescribed  reading  in  prose  of  the  three-year 
course  in  the  high  school. 


PROSE   WRITERS  263 

The  question  arises  frequently,  however,  ''  What  fur- 
ther reading  is  to  be  recommended  when  there  is  still 
time  for  the  purpose  ?  "  For  time  there  will  YMrXhtv 
often  be.  Many  classes,  especially  small  Prose 
classes,  will  finish  ahead  of  the  usual  time.  ^^*^^* 
Others  will  have  extra  time  gained  by  taking  an  addi- 
tional half-year  or  year  for  preparation  for  college,  or 
may  find  leisure  because  they  are  ahead  in  other  studies. 
The  answers  given  to  this  question  are  four:  First, 
selections  from  one  or  more  of  the  other  works  of 
Xenophon,  —  the  Hellenica  or  the  Cyropcedia.  Second, 
something  of  Plato.  Third,  selections  from  Lysias,  or 
another  of  the  Attic  orators.  Fourth,  portions  of  He- 
rodotus. In  favor  of  some  further  reading  in  another 
work  of  Xenophon,  it  may  be  said  that  his  style  has 
been  mastered,  and  that  a  wider  vocabulary  can  be 
obtained  by  the  reading  proposed.  This  may  be  granted 
and  still  not  be  convincing.  It  is  often  the  subject  of 
complaint  that  the  student  comes  up  to  his  college  work 
with  a  very  limited  vocabulary.  Another  work  of  Xen- 
ophon will  not  materially  aid  in  removing  the  ground  of 
this  complaint.  For  the  choice  of  the  Hellenica  it  may 
fairly  be  said  that  the  subject  matter  is  of  importance, 
and  that  some  valuable  knowledge  of  history  may  be 
gained  by  its  study.  No  such  argument  can  be  urged 
for  the  Cyropcediay  however,  nor  can  I  think  it  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  justify  the  devoting  to  it  of  precious 
time. 

That  some  of  the  easier  portions  of  Plato  may  be 
taken  up  with  profit  seems  likely.  I  cannot  speak  from 
any  actual  experience  in  school  work  in  this  , 

author,  but  I  know  that,  as  freshmen  in  col-    Easier 
lege,  students  never  fail  to  become  interested    ^^•'^ues. 
in  him.     Some  book  of  selections  may  be  taken  to  fur- 
nish the  reading  matter,  or  one  of  the  easier  dialogues 
may  be  chosen. 


264  PROSE   WRITERS 

The  Protagoras  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  first 
readings  in  Plato.  It  can  be  arranged  by  some  omis- 
sions so  as  to  furnish  no  very  great  difficulties.  As  an 
example  of  Socrates'  habit  and  manner  of  giving  a 
serious  turn  to  the  most  trivial  remarks,  and  of  introduc- 
ing themes  of  the  highest  importance  in  an  unexpected 
manner  and  in  an  unlooked  for  connection,  it  is  unsur- 
passed. Besides  this  there  is  the  hve  question  intro- 
duced at  the  beginning,  "  What  is  the  end  of  education, 
and  what  kinds  of  education  are  there?  "  This  is  a  par- 
ticularly fit  theme  for  the  last  year  of  school  work,  and 
of  positive  value  for  the  man  who  does  not  go  to  college 
as  well  as  for  the  prospective  collegian.  The  beautiful 
myth  of  the  creation  of  man  and  of  the  organization  of 
society  is  not  hard  reading,  and  it  is  certainly  very  sug- 
gestive and  stimulating  to  further  study  in  this  wonder- 
ful author.  Another  practical  advantage  in  the  reading 
of  the  Protagoras  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  vocabulary  of 
the  earlier  chapters  is  admirably  adapted  for  drill  in 
prose  composition.  Other  short  and  easy  dialogues 
sometimes  chosen  are  the  Lysis,  Menexenus,  and  Laches. 
I  do  not  myself  think  the  Apology  of  Socrates  is  suitable 
for  the  first  introduction  to  Plato.  It  contains  many 
difficulties.  It  is  a  defence  of  a  Hfe  of  pecuHar  activity, 
and  it  is  better  understood  and  more  thoroughly  appre- 
ciated later  in  the  course,  when  more  has  been  learned 
of  this  life  and  of  the  habits  which  are  the  subject  of  the 
defence.  Various  other  minor  works  proposed  for  the 
purpose  of  additional  prose  reading  I  do  not  discuss, 
because  I  think  that  the  time  of  the  student  should  not 
be  claimed  for  writings  of  little  historical  or  literary 
value.  The  amount  of  Greek  he  can  and  will  read  is 
very  limited  at  best.  All  save  the  finest  should  be 
excluded  from  consideration. 

The  plan  of  taking  something  from  one  of  the  orators 


PROSE   WRITERS 


265 


is  not  so  easily  judged.  There  are  great  advantages  in 
reading  from  Lysias,  for  instance.  He  is  a  recognised 
master  of  a  simple  and  attractive  style.  His  portions  of 
vocabulary  is  a  valuable  one,  particularly  for  ^^  orators, 
further  work  in  the  orators,  and  much  of  the  subject 
matter  is  of  great  interest,  as  it  deals  with  Athenian  pri- 
vate and  public  life.  But  the  narratives  must  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  argumentative  portions  of  his  speeches, 
owing  to  the  difficulties  in  thought  presented  by  the  latter. 
The  two  are  often  so  interwoven  that  this  separation  is 
almost  impossible,  or  if  made  produces  a  text  which  is 
incomplete  and  fragmentary.  This  scrappiness  is  an  all 
too  frequent  result  of  selections  in  Greek  reading,  and 
should,  I  think,  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

The  fourth  plan,  and  the  one  which  has  the  official 
endorsement  of  the  American  Philological  Association, 

proposes  Herodotus  for  reading  in  this  place 
ft  r.     r  1  ,       ,  .  Herodotus, 

m  the  course,  bo  far  as  style  and  subject  mat- 
ter are  concerned,  he  is  an  ideal  author  for  the  purpose. 
I  think,  however,  that  the  introduction  of  a  third  dialect 
of  Greek  into  the  high  school  is  entirely  indefensible. 
It  can  but  add  a  confusing  element  to  the  student's 
ideas  and  knowledge  of  Greek  forms.  The  Homeric 
dialect  has  diverted  the  student's  attention  from  the 
Attic,  but  that  we  suffer  for  the  greater  gain  in  a  literary 
way.  The  acquaintance  with,  and  the  ability  to  handle, 
the  Attic  forms  is  too  important,  however,  to  be  subjected 
to  further  hazard. 

If  Herodotus  is  to  be  read  at  all  in  the  preparatory 
course,  I  should  prefer  to  follow  an  English  custom  and 
have  the  text  atticised  throughout.  The  objections  to 
this  seem  to  me  to  be  of  less  weight  than  the  damage 
otherwise  done  to  the  student,  who  is  at  this  time  trying 
hard  to  attain  to  a  certainty  in  the  recognition  of  gram- 
matical forms. 


266  PROSE   WRITERS 

Preferable  to  any  of  the  plans  mentioned  is,  in  my 
judgment,  that  of  reading  the  remainder  of  the  Anabasis, 
More  of  the  or,  at  least,  large  portions  of  it,  and  for  these 
Anabasis.  reasons :  First,  the  reading  done,  both  in 
college  and  in  school,  is,  at  the  best,  very  fragmen- 
tary. Consider  the  latter  as  commonly  done.  First,  of 
one  author  about  one  half  of  one  work,  the  Anabasis. 
Then,  a  small  portion,  not  more  than  one  fourth  at  the 
outside,  of  one  poem,  the  Iliad.  This  portion  of  the 
poem  is  not  sufficient  to  carry  through  to  its  conclusion 
any  one  of  the  developments  of  the  story  suggested  in 
the  part  that  is  read.  This  is  the  usual  acquaintance 
with  Greek  literature  which  the  boy  possesses  when  he 
enters  college.  There  again  too  often  the  same  frag- 
mentary nature  of  this  Greek  reading  is  continued.  So 
it  does  not  seem  to  me  wise  to  add  to  the  school  read- 
ing another  small  fragment  of  a  work  like  Herodotus' 
history.  Second,  the  entire  setting  of  any  new  work 
must  be  learned,  while  with  the  Anabasis  and  with  its 
author,  who  in  the  later  books  is  the  chief  actor,  the 
students  are  already  acquainted.  Third,  the  subject 
matter  of  Books  V.-VII.  of  the  Anabasis  is  of  much  in- 
terest. This  is  especially  true  of  Book  V.  Here  the 
personality  of  Xenophon  comes  out  with  distinctness. 
The  descriptions  of  the  various  inhabitants  of  the  north 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  of  their  manner  of  living,  and  of 
the  hfe  and  home  of  Xenophon  himself  in  later  years,  — 
all  this  is  interesting,  and  it  is  told  in  a  language  not  at 
all  difficult.  If  less  than  the  whole  seven  books  of  the 
Anabasis  must  be  the  limit,  I  think  that  Book  V.,  at 
least,  should  be  read.  This  reading  can  be  done  by  the 
student  with  more  ease  and  with  more  rapidity  than  a 
new  work  or  a  new  author.  Therefore  it  will  be  read, 
I  believe,  with  more  pleasure  and  profit. 

There  will  be  a  sense  of  satisfaction  in  the  completing 


PROSE   WRITERS  267 

an  entire  work,  and  in  the  increasing  ability  to  read  with 
less  labour  in  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  I  add  a  few 
words  about  the  vocabulary  of  the  fifth  book  sj^iai 
of  the  Anabasis.  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  Book  Advantages 
v.,  contains  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  *  ^' 
words  which  have  not  been  used  in  Books  I.-IV.  Thirty 
of  these  are  contained  in  one  passage,  a  few  sections  in 
length.  More  than  one  fourth  of  them  are  new  prep- 
ositional compounds  of  verbs  already  met  with  in  the 
earlier  books.  To  the  understanding  of  these  the  lexi- 
con is  hardly  necessary,  if  the  meanings  of  the  preposi- 
tions have  been  carefully  studied.  Other  new  words 
are  of  common  occurrence  in  Greek  works  to  be  read 
later,  and  an  acquaintance  with  them  is  a  direct  advan- 
tage. Such  words  are  alfia^  oXcoa-cfMa,  avdOrj/jia,  airoLKo^^ 
a(T(f>akeLa^  a^pocrvvrj.,  /3Laco<;,  ryeXoLov^  Stdvoia,  SiKaar'^fi, 
evhoOev^  e/JLTTOpo^;^  evn/jLO';^  e^o8o<i^  eviropia,  KaOdirep,  kolXtj^ 
/jLL(T6o(f>opd,  vocro^,  TToOev^  Trpo^evo^i,  cTTrfkT)^  ^6po<i,  ^opriov^ 
'\jrrj<l>o<;.  These  two  classes,  of  which  the  second  might 
be  extended,  comprise  one  third  of  the  whole  number 
of  new  words  met  with  in  Book  V.  These  considera- 
tions seem  to  me  worth  careful  weighing  when  deciding 
the  main  question  of  wka^  nextf  It  may  be  added 
also  that  this  book  describes  the  march  of  the  Greeks 
through  a  country  which  is  at  the  present  time  of  much 
interest  in  many  ways. 

The  Greek  New  Testament.  Few,  if  any,  schools 
make  systematic  provision  for  instruction  in  the  Greek 
New  Testament.     I  do  not  believe  that  it  can 

,  1     ,     .  1  •      1  1  •    1      .      DesirabiUty 

be  crowded    mto    the    curriculum,    which   is  of  instruction 

now  over  full.      But  I  do  think  that  a  wide-  ^^^f  "^ 

awake  teacher  would  often  be  able  to  get  an 

opportunity  to  spend  perhaps   an   hour  a  week  with  his 

students,  and  to  start  them  in  this  time  in  the  reading 

of  some  of  the  easier  portions  of  the  New  Testament  in 


268  PROSE    WRITERS 

their  original  form.  Once  started,  they  could,  and,  I 
believe,  would,  follow  up  the  reading  by  themselves.  If 
this  can  be  accomplished,  there  will  be  a  double  gain 
therefrom.  First,  the  student  will  gain  some  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures  in  Greek.  I  regard  this  as  desirable. 
In  fact,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  present  ignorance  of 
the  Greek  New  Testament  on  the  part  of  people  who 
have  had  a  ''  classical  education  "  is  little  short  of  a  dis- 
grace. It  may  be  said  that  the  college  is  the  place 
where  this  branch  of  Greek  literature  should  be  read. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  read  there  to  any  great 
extent,  nor  by  any  considerable  number  of  students,  even 
in  those  colleges  in  which  instruction  in  it  is  offered. 
I  venture  the  statement  that  very  few,  outside  the  num- 
ber who  may  be  looking  forward  to  a  course  of  study  in 
a  theological  seminary,  choose  this.  More 's  the  pity  ! 
Few  pieces  of  Hterature  are  more  impressive  or  more 
charming  in  their  simple  and  straightforward  earnest- 
ness. But  these  books  are  more  to  us  than  literature. 
Stripped  of  all  theological  interpretation,  they  present 
the  first  literary  message  and  the  first  history  of  the 
religion  professed  by  most  of  the  civilized  world. 
Acquaintance  with  these  books  may  be  begun  at  an 
early  period  in  the  student's  work  in  Greek.  I  would 
advise  urging  upon  every  student  who  has  begun  to  read 
Xenophon  the  purchase  of  a  Greek  New  Testament. 
Let  him  carry  this  with  him  to  church  always  and  follow 
in  it  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Besides  affording 
him  a  knowledge  of  the  text,  this  habit  will  assist  him 
not  a  Httle  in  his  school  work  in  Greek.  His  vocabulary 
will  be  increased,  and  his  familiarity  with  Greek  made 
greater.  I  have  refrained  from  presenting  any  argu- 
ments based  on  religious  considerations,  but  I  believe 
that  the  careful  study  of  the  Greek  text  will  prove  su- 
perior in  moral  effect  to  numerous  homilies  on  the  value 
of  the  lessons  taught  therein. 


PROSE    WRITERS  269 

I  add  the  titles  of  some  books  which  will  be  helpful 
in  this  field.  The  best  available  edition  for  the  whole 
of  the  New  Testament  is  that  of  Wescott  and  Hort.  It 
is  published  by  The  Macmillan  Company,  both  with  and 
without  a  lexicon  by  Hickie.  The  same  text  is  to  be 
had,  without  lexicon,  of  The  American  Book  Company, 
New  York.  Both  of  these  editions  contain  matter  of 
importance  for  the  text  in  a  supplement,  which  is  con- 
densed from  a  larger  work  by  the  same  authors. 

A  very  handy  edition  of  the  text  is  Novum  Testa- 
mentum  Graece,  edited  by  D.  E.  Nestle,  Stuttgart,  1898. 
This  edition  may  be  had  of  any  importer  of  German 
books  at  a  small  cost.  It  is  quite  a  marvel  of  conden- 
sation, containing  marginal  references  and  text  vari- 
ations. The  typography  is  excellent-  The  type  itself 
is  rather  thin-faced,  however.  There  are  some  good 
maps  at  the  end  of  the  book,  which  is  by  far  the  best 
cheap  edition  of  the  text. 

Good  editions  of  the  several  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment may  be  had  in  the  Cambridge  Greek  Testament 
for  Schools  and  Colleges.  Each  volume  contains  the 
Greek  text,  with  copious  notes  and  analyses  of  con- 
tents, etc.  The  Gospels,  Acts,  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  may  also  be  had  in  separate  volumes  in  White's 
Grammar  School  Texts. 

The  best  lexicon  of  New  Testament  Greek  is  by  Pro- 
fessor Joseph  H.  Thayer  (New  York,  The  American 
Book  Co.).  It  is  one  of  the  most  complete  dictionaries 
for  the  field  it  covers  which  have  ever  been  made. 

Hickie's  lexicon,  mentioned  above,  is  also  pubhshed 
separately. 

The  best  grammar  of  the  New  Testament  Greek  is 
by  Professor  Friedrich  Blass.  It  is  to  be  had  in  Eng- 
lish, translated  by  H.  S.  Thackeray,  or  in  the  original 
German,   Gottingen,    1896.      It  is   not  a  grammar  for 


2/0 


PROSE    WRITERS 


beginners  in  Greek,  but  its  use  presupposes  some  knowl- 
edge of  classical  Greek. 

Burton,  E.  D.  W.  Syntax  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses 
in  New  Testament  Greek  (Chicago :  The  University- 
Press).     An  excellent  book  in  the  field  it  covers. 

Huddilston,  J.  H.  Essentials  of  New  Testament 
Greek  (London  and  New  York:  Macmillan,  1895).  -^ 
book  for  beginners  in  Greek.  Based  entirely  on  the 
grammar  of  the  New  Testament  usage,  its  aim  is  to  pro- 
vide the  shortest  method  for  acquiring  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  to  read  the  New  Testament  in 
Greek.  It  can  be  used  without  a  teacher,  if  need  be,  and 
is  a  thoroughly  good  book.  It  contains  also  a  selected 
bibhography  of  works  on  the  New  Testament. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HOMER 
REFERENCES. 

A.    Language,  Antiquities,  Literary  Questions. 

Gehring,  A.  Index  Homericus.  Leipzig,  189 1.  Indispensable  to 
every  teacher  who  wishes  to  make  a  first-hand  study  of  the  poems. 

Ebeliag,  H.  Editor.  Lexicon  Homericum.  2  vols.  Leipzig,  1885. 
The  largest  and  most  complete  work.  It  is  valuable  for  a  library  of 
reference,  but  rather  expensive  for  individual  ownership. 

Autenrieth,  G.  A  Homeric  Dictionary.  Translated  by  R.  P.  Keep, 
and  revised  by  Isaac  Flagg.  The  American  Book  Company,  New  York. 
The  most  convenient  small  work  of  the  kind,  though  not  always  accu- 
rate. Its  small  cost  places  it  within  the  reach  of  every  teacher,  and 
every  student  in  school  who  intends  to  pursue  Homer  in  college  should 
be  urged  to  buy  it. 

Monro,  D.  B.  A  Grammar  of  the  Homeric  Dialect.  Second  edition. 
Oxford,  1891.  The  standard  grammar  of  the  language,  including  forms 
and  syntax. 

Jebb,  R.  C.  Homer :  An  Introduction  to  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. 
London  and  Boston.  An  exceedingly  useful  book,  whose  purpose  is 
"  to  furnish,  in  a  compact  form,  a  general  introduction  to  the  study  of 
Homer.  The  four  chapters  into  which  it  is  divided  deal  respectively 
with  four  aspects  of  the  subject:  (i)  The  general  character  of  the 
Homeric  poems,  and  their  place  in  the  history  of  literature;  (2)  their 
historical  value,  as  illustrating  an  early  period  of  Hellenic  life  ;  (3)  their 
influence  in  the  ancient  world,  and  the  criticism  bestowed  on  them  in 
antiquity;  (4)  the  modern  inquiry  into  their  origin."  These  are  matters 
about  which  every  teacher  of  Homer  should  know.  They  are  treated  in 
this  work  with  the  brilliancy  and  grace  which  are  so  characteristic  of  the 
author's  work, 

Cauer,  P.  Grundfragen  der  Homerkritik.  Leipzig,  1895.  -^  good 
presentation  of  the  various  phases  of  the  "  Homeric  question  "  or  ques- 
tions. 

Buchholz,  E.  Die  Homerische  Realien.  3  vols.  Leipzig,  187 1-1885. 
An  extended  and,  in  the  main,  satisfactory  treatment  of  the  "  antiqui- 
ties "  of  the  poems. 


2/2 


HOMER 


Helbig,  W.  Das  Homerische  Epos  aus  den  Denkmalem  erlautert. 
2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1887.  An  attempt  to  illustrate  the  various  descriptions 
of  clothing,  armour,  etc.,  in  the  poems  by  means  of  archaeological 
material. 

Reichel,  "W.  Ueber  Homerische  Waff  en.  Vienna,  1894.  An  at- 
tempt to  illustrate  the  descriptions  of  armour  in  Homer  by  means  of  the 
Mycenaean  remains. 

Lang,  Andrew.  Homer  and  the  Epic.  Longmans,  Green,  &  Co. 
London  and  New  York,  1893.  -^  general  discussion  of  the  "  Homeric 
question  "  from  a  literary  and  conservative  point  of  view.  Lang  argues 
for  the  unity  of  authorship. 

Leaf,  Walter.  A  Companion  to  the  Iliad.  Macmillan  &  Co.  Lon- 
don, 1892.  Like  the  last-named  work,  a  discussion  of  the  Homeric 
question.  Leaf  believes  the  Iliad  is  an  enlargement  of  an  earlier  and 
shorter  poem. 

Geddes,  W.  D.  The  Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poems.  London,  1878. 
In  addition  to  a  discussion  of  the  subject,  the  book  contains  a  statement 
of  the  history  of  the  discussion. 

Much  matter  of  a  similar  nature  is  to  be  found  in  some  of  the  editions 
named  below. 

B.    Editions. 

Monro,  D.  B.  Homeri  Opera  et  Reliquiae.  Oxford,  The  Clarendon 
Press,  1896.  A  beautiful  text  edition,  on  India  paper,  containing  in  one 
octavo  volume  all  of  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  and  the  Homeric  Hymns. 
It  costs  $3.50,  and  is  a  real  treasure. 

Christ,  W.  Homeri  Iliadis  Carmina  sejuncta,  discreta,  emendata. 
Prolegomenis  et  apparatu  critico  instructa.  The  poem  is  separated  into 
forty  shorter  songs,  whose  comparative  age  is  indicated  by  four  different 
kinds  of  type  in  printing  the  text.    The  Prolegomena  are  of  much  value. 

Leaf,  W.  The  Iliad  edited  with  English  Notes  and  an  Introduction. 
2  vols.  London,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1900,  1903.  A  fine  library  edition. 
The  notes  are  largely  critical  and  exegetical.  The  introduction  to  the 
second  volume  contains  a  table  of  arrangement  of  the  various  books  in 
the  supposed  order  of  their  composition.  This  table  is  a  valuable  anal- 
ysis of  the  contents  of  the  poem. 

Ameis,  K.  F.,  and  Hentze,  C.  Homers  Ilias  fiir  den  Schulgebrauch 
erklart.  Teubner,  Leipzig.  The  best,  and  it  is  very  good  indeed,  edition 
with  German  explanatory  notes.  An  appendix  contains  detailed  discus- 
sions of  particular  passages,  with  the  citation  of  a  vast  number  of  books 
and  pamphlets.  It  is  published  in  eight  different  parts,  each  of  which 
contains  three  books  of  the  poem,  and  to  each  of  these  there  is  a  corre- 
sponding part  of  the  appendix.  New  editions  are  constantly  appearing, 
and  this  fact  makes  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  aids  in  the  study  of 
the  poem.  There  is  an  edition  of  the  Odyssey  by  the  same  editors,  and 
identical  in  plan  and  scope. 


HOMER  273 

Henke,  Oscar.  Die  Gedichte  Homers.  Part  i,  the  Odyssey.  Part  2, 
the  Iliad.  A  finely  printed,  large,  clear  text  for  German  schoolboys. 
Teachers  may  derive  much  help  from  the  arrangement  of  the  subject 
matter  of  the  poems,  and  in  particulai  from  the  results  of  pedagogic 
experience  shown  all  through  the  book.  Published  by  Teubner, 
Leipzig. 

C.    Translations. 

Chapman,  George.  1616.  A  convenient  edition  is  that  of  R.  Hooper, 
in  Temple  Classics,  London,  1898.  Pope,  Alexander.  1720.  Available 
in  many  editions.     Cowper,  W.     1791.     Bryant,  W.  C.     1871. 

Way,  A.  S.  2  vols.  London,  1886,  1889.  A  translation  into  spirited 
hexameters. 

The  above  mentioned  are  verse  translations.  The  following  are  prose 
versions  of  merit. 

Of  the  Iliad :  Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers,  London,  1883,  and  John  Purves, 
London,  1891. 

Of  the  Odyssey :  Butcher  and  Lang,  London,  1882,  and  G.  H.  Palmer, 
Boston,  1884. 

The  arguments  for  and  against  the  study  of  any  part 
of  the  Homeric  poems  in  the  high  school  have  often 
been  stated,  and  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  xhe  case  for 
from  a  discussion  of  them.  On  the  one  side  Homerinthe 
there  is  good  reason  for  objection  to  the  intro-  ^^^^  School, 
duction  into  a  short  course  of  study  in  Greek  of  a  form 
of  that  language  so  different  from  the  form  which  is 
made  the  basis  of  grammatical  description  and  practice 
that  it  is  almost  a  new  tongue.  On  the  other  side,  the 
pleasure  to  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  alike  in  the  reading 
of  Homer  must  rightly  be  given  considerable  weight. 
More  than  one  teacher  of  Greek  has  said  to  me,  "  If 
I  could  n't  teach  Homer,  I  should  n't  care  to  go  on  with 
my  classes."  For  the  student  who  is  going  to  keep  on 
in  a  college  course  in  Greek,  it  may  fairly  be  urged 
that  a  better  acquaintance  with  prose  writing  will  enable 
him  to  read  poetry  with  more  rapidity,  with  greater 
ease,  and  with  a  deeper  appreciation.  For  the  student 
who  does  not  go  to  college  the  school  course  must  afford 
an  opportunity  to  get  some  knowledge  of  Homer.     We 


2/4  HOMER 

must  accept  the  situation  and  proceed  upon  the  theory 
that  some  portion  of  the  Iliad  or  the  Odyssey  is  to  form 
a  part  of  the  high  school  course  in  Greek. 

The  field  of  Homeric  study  is  so  vast,  and  the  various 
problems  connected  with  it  are  so  numerous,  that  the 
The  Problem  fi^'st  question  the  teacher  must  meet  and 
of  Selection,  answer  is  that  of  selecting  what  he  will  empha- 
size, and  of  deciding  what  must  be  passed  by.  The 
reasonable  answer  seems  to  me  to  be,  first  of  all,  the 
poem  itself.  It  makes  no  possible  difference  to  the 
young  student  beginning  this  reading  whether  the  Iliad 
is  a  unit  or  a  collection  of  poems.  He  will  not  be 
troubled  by  confusion,  real  or  fancied,  of  motive,  or  by 
forms  which  are  "  unhomeric."  His  difficulties  are  far 
simpler  ones  than  these,  or  others  like  them.  His  diffi- 
culties consist  in  the  strange  forms  of  inflection,  the  novel 
uses  of  syntax,  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  compound 
verbs,  and  so  on.  Not  until  he  has  mastered  all  these 
and  has  read  a  considerable  portion  of  the  poems,  should 
problems  of  textual  or  literary  criticism  be  suffered  to 
disturb  his  appreciation.  Sympathetic  study  and  htter- 
pretation  are  the  things  which  will  make  this,  his  chief 
literary  study  in  school,  of  lasting  value  and  enjoyment. 

First  of  all,  in  my  judgment,  comes  the  reading  of  the 
text  in  an  accurate  and  true  rhythmical  fashion.  If 
Reading  of  the  the  student  has  already  learned  to  read  his 
Homeric  Text.  Virgil  in  this  manner,  there  will  be  no  great 
difficulty  with  the  Homer.  If  not,  then  time  enough 
must  be  devoted  at  the  start  to  master  the  rhythm  of 
the  verse.  The  Homeric  verse  is  easier  to  read  than 
the  Latin.  The  elisions  of  vowels  are  nearly  all  made 
in  the  text  as  printed,  and  vowels  do  not  have  to  be 
crowded  out  or  slurred  in  pronunciation.  Again,  the 
vowels  whose  signs  are  doubtful  in  quantity  are  fewer 
than  in  Latin  verse,     a,  t,  and  v  are  usually  short.     In 


HOMER 


275 


the  first  two  hundred  verses  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Iliady  there  are  twelve  cases  of  a  (not  counting  inflec- 
tional syllables)  in  which  the  accent  as  printed  does  not 
show  the  quantity,  or  the  vowel  is  not  in  the  first  syl- 
lable of  the  verse.  Of  these  the  word  \a6<^  furnishes 
five,  and  ^ KiroXKoav  four.  The  remainder  is  made  up 
of  aprjTijp  twice,  and  the  rare  word  ttoXvcuko';.  I  is  met 
with  under  similar  conditions  twenty-two  times,  of  which 
arlfidco  furnishes  four,  and  ot  co  three,  v  is  found  eigh- 
teen times  in  the  two  hundred  Hues.  Of  these  Ovfjuo^^ 
seven  times,  and  Xvco,  three  times,  make  up  more  than 
one  half 

A  careful  noting  of  these  facts  will  be  a  great  help, 
and  save  much  uncertainty.  An  examination  by  the 
teacher  of  the  passage  to  be  read  will  enable  him  to 
select  the  more  important  words  from  this  point  of  view 
for  memorizing  by  his  pupils  and  for  practice  in  pro- 
nunciation. The  mechanical  analysis  of  the  Mechanical 
verse  will  often  afford  much  help  in  getting  Aids  in  this, 
the  quantity.  As  the  verse  is  made  up  of  dactyls  and 
spondees  exclusively,  —  barring  the  final  foot  in  the 
verse,  which  may  be  a  trochee,  —  it  is  evident  that  one 
short  syllable  will  never  be  found  standing  alone  in  it. 
That  is,  the  succession  of  syllables  -  w  -  (a  cretic) 
cannot  occur.  Further,  it  is  equally  plain  that  three 
successive  short  syllables,  www,  cannot  occur.  Two 
long  syllables  must  be  followed  by  a  third  long.  So  a 
scheme  like  the  following  may  be  used  in  determining 
the  quantity  of  syllables  which  to  the  eye  are  doubtful. 
Let  X  represent  the  one  uncertain  in  quantity.  In  the 
combinations  —  x  -  and  -  w  \j  x,x  must  be  equal  to 
-.  In  -X  w  and  -  \j  x,  x  must  be  equal  to  w.  I 
have  found  this  a  saving  of  time  in  discussing  quantity 
in  Homeric  verse.  Care  is  necessary,  however,  that 
the  pupils  do  not  get  the  idea  that  this  explains  the 


2/6  HOMER 

cause  of  the  quantity,  and  not  merely  the  fact.  Ex- 
planations of  metrical  difficulties  of  a  special  nature  will 
be  found  in  the  notes  to  any  good  school  edition.  One 
phenomenon  of  rather  frequent  occurrence  is  the  short- 
ening of  a  diphthong,  when  final  in  a  wordy  before  the 
initial  vowel  of  the  following  word.  E.g.  Iliad  A  i8, 
Kal  aXKoi  ivKvrifjiLhe<;  'A%aiOL  Note  that  the  at  of '^;^atot 
is  not  so  treated. 

This  shortening  may  be  illustrated  in  English,  ap- 
proximately, by  the  fuller  sound  of  the  letters  oy  in  enjoy 
or  enjoyment,  for  instance,  than  in  the  participle  enjoying. 
Other  examples,  like  employ ,  employment,  employer  ;  cry, 
crier,  crying,  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher  or 
even  to  the  bright  pupil.  The  teacher  may  show,  too, 
that  ft)  is  like  oo,  and  that  in  such  a  line  as  rriv  S'  676  ov 
\va(o,  Iliad  A  29,  it  may  be  considered  that  the  second 
of  these  0  sounds  has  been  elided. 

When  the  quantity  of  all  the  syllables  has  been  settled 
in  a  verse  or  verses,  and  the  proper  division  into  feet 
Rhytiunicai  has  been  made,  the  reading  aloud  should  be 
Reading.  thoroughly  practised  in  perfect  time.  By 
perfect  time  I  mean  |  time,  that  is,  with  its  unit  formed 
by  a  measure  that  has  four  beats  and  can  be  used  as  a 
march  movement.  In  theory  nothing  can  be  simpler 
than  this  analysis,  but  in  practice  it  is  difficult,  because 
of  the  confusion  caused  in  the  application  of  these  terms 
of  Greek  metrical  systems  to  English  poetry,  in  which 
the  principle  of  rhythm  is  entirely  different.  English 
'*  dactylic  "  verse  is  not  in  the  least  like  Greek  dactylic 
verse.  The  English  dactyl  is  represented  by  the  same 
signs,  -  Kj  ^,  but  it  depends  entirely  upon  stress  for  its 
effect  and  not  upon  quantity.  It  is  really  in  f  time. 
The  tendency  on  the  part  of  English-speaking  students, 
and  teachers  too,  to  carry  this  method  of  reading  into 
the  Greek   hexameter  is   almost   irresistible.     But   the 


HOMER  277 

true  quantitative  rhythmic  effect  can  be  obtained  by 
patient  practice,  and  especially  if  it  be  insisted  upon  from 
the  very  beginning,  so  that  a  false  habit  is  not  formed. 
To  illustrate  this  method,  I  give  a  verse  with  the  time 
marked 

H    34    li  3 4  LI  34^^3  4  H 3  4113 
or,  in  musical  notation, 

It  will  be  of  assistance  in  learning  this  way  of  reading 
if  each  syllable  in  the  accented  part  of  the  foot  be  said 
in  a  higher  tone.  This  makes  it  easier  to  be  certain  of 
the  time  given  to  the  ictus  syllable.  The  hardest  part 
of  this  method,  and  the  point  in  which  I  have  found  the 
most  difficulty  in  practice,  lies  in  securing  the  proper 
time  for  the  unaccented  long  syllable  of  a  spondee. 
For  example,  in  the  verse  given  the  -Xa?  of  TroXXa?,  the 
-(f>dl  of  l(j>9l^ov^^  and  the  i/riJ  of  ^/rup^a?.  The  student 
invariably  inclines  to  shorten  these  and  all  similar  syl- 
lables and  so  to  revert  to  |  time.  Reading  the  verses 
while  marching,  or,  better  yet,  reciting  them  from  mem- 
ory, is  one  way  of  improving  the  rendering  of  them. 
Or  let  the  class  in  concert  recite  while  the  teacher  beats 
time  himself,  or  selects  a  leader  from  the  class  to  do 
this. 

When  the  class  has  acquired  the  ability  to  divide 
properly  the  verses  into  feet,  and  to  read  them  in  strictly 
correct  time,  the  students  should  be  taught  Reading  with 
to  bring  out  the  meaning  of  the  lines  by  care-  Expression. 
fully  distinguishing  and  separating  the  words.  While  a 
pupil  reads,  or  recites  the  verses,  let  the  teacher,  without 
looking  at  the  text,  try  to  pick  out  the  words.  In  the 
line  above,  the  student,  with  his  attention  fixed  upon 


278 


HOMER 


the  feet  and  upon  reproducing  them,  will  probably  di- 
vide in  this  way : 

TToXXa?  I  8*  l<^Qi  I  /lou?  i/ru  I  ^a9  "At  |  Si  irpoi  \  a-yjrev 
making  a  distinct  pause  at  the  end  of  each  foot,  and 
none  between  the  words  themselves.  Call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  no  such  word  as  fJLov<;yjrv  or  %a9at. 
It  cannot  be  too  often  emphasized  that  this  poetry  was 
composed  for  recitation,  not  for  reading;  and  that  it 
was  to  be  understood  by  hearing.  The  only  way  to 
reproduce  the  effect  and  to  get  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  artistic  form  is  to  imitate  this  process  of  reciting  as 
best  we  may.  This  same  principle  must  be  borne  in 
mind  in  discussing  the  caesural  pause  of  the  verse.  It 
should  be  an  aid  to  the  understanding  of  the  poet's 
meaning.  Therefore  what  is  closely  joined  in  thought 
should  not  be  separated  by  it.  Nor  is  it  always  of  the 
same  weight.  Compare  in  this  respect  the  line  given 
with  line  five,  or  lines  eight  and  nine  with  each  other. 
The  very  common  habit  of  making  a  complete  break  in 
the  third  foot  of  the  verse,  quite  irrespective  of  the  sense 
required,  should  not  be  tolerated. 

The  interpretation  of  the  text  which  has  been  so 
studied,  should  be,  on  the  teacher's  part,  a  first-hand 
Interpretation  interpretation  as  far  as  possible.  I  would 
of  the  Text,  ^j-ge  the  teacher,  with  the  help  of  Gehring's 
Index,  to  follow  the  uses  of  any  given  Homeric  word 
through  as  many  passages  as  possible,  and  in  this  way 
form  his  own  idea  of  the  precise  meaning  and  use  of  the 
word,  and  of  the  most  adequate  English  word  to  replace 
it  in  translating.  A  teacher  who  has  done  this  has  a 
command  of  the  text  which  cannot  be  obtained  from  the 
vocabularies  alone,  and  can  be  much  more  confident  of 
his  knowledge  and  much  clearer  in  explanation  to  the 
A  Typical  class.  Further,  the  students  should  be  en- 
Exampie.      couraged  to  make  a  similar  study  for  them- 


HOMER  279 

selves,  after  they  have  followed  their  teacher  through 
the  steps  of  the  process  in  a  few  examples.  I  shall  try 
to  give  an  illustration  of  what  I  mean. 

Iliad  A  1 1  i-i  1 5  reads  as  follows : 

ovveK  iycb  KOvpr)<;  ^pva-rjiBo^;  ay\a  airoiva 

ov/c  edekov  Se^acrOat,  iirel  iroXv  ^ovXo/jbaL  avTrjv 

OLKOi  e^eiv.      fcal  yap  pa  K.XvTaLiJLvrj(TTp7]<;  irpo^e^ovXa, 

KOVpiBir]<i  aXoxov,  eVet  ov  eOiv  ia-rc  x^peicov, 

ov  Se/xa?  ovSe  ^vrjv,  ovt  ap'  ^peva^  ovre  n  epya. 

Here  the  problem  is  to  distinguish  in  verse  115  the 
meanings  of  Se/^a?  and  (ftvrjv.  The  notes  in  school  edi- 
tions and  the  vocabularies  most  used  show  a  wide  differ- 
ence of  interpretation.  If  the  editions  of  Keep  and  of 
Seymour  are  both  represented  in  the  class,  it  may  happen 
that  one  pupil  reading  according  to  Keep  translates  not 
in  figure  nor  in  stature.  Another,  however,  quotes 
Seymour's  note  '*  Se/^a?,  not  in  build.  This  probably 
refers  to  her  stature,  since  the  Greeks  always  associated 
height  and  beauty."^  Now  this  is  confusing.  Figure 
and  stature  are  not  the  same  thing,  and  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible that  the  same  Greek  word  meant  either  one  at 
pleasure.  If  now  to  meet  the  difficulty  thus  presented 
we  look  into  other  books  for  help,  we  find  that  Auten- 
rieth's  dictionary  gives  as  equivalents  for  hepia^  frame, 
build,  and  for  ^tvq  growth,  form,  physique.  This  is  not 
specific  enough  to  be  of  much  assistance.  Leaf,  in  his 
edition  of  1886,  says  in  his  note  on  the  passage:  *'  The 
distinction  of  Se/xa?  and  (i>vrj  is  not  quite  clear.  From 
phrases  like  Se/xa?  irvpo^  it  would  seem  natural  to  take 


1  Seymour  refers  further  to  line  167  in  support  of  this  idea,  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  that  particular  passage,  if  lines  168  and  169  be  read, 
is  not  a  good  one  for  his  purpose.  Of  the  correctness  of  his  statement 
there  can  be  no  possible  doubt,  for  Homeric  times  at  least. 


280  HOMER 

S€/xa<;  as  outward  appearance  generally ;  ^vr)  as  growthy 
i.  e.y  stature.  But  this  latter  meaning  belongs  to  Se/xa? 
in  E  8oi.  Perhaps  we  may  render  stature  and  figure 
with  about  the  same  degree  of  vagueness."  But  Leaf 
and  Bayfield,  in  their  edition  of  1895,  translate  7ieither 
Help  from  the  in  favour  nor  stature.  So  there  seems  to  be 
Poem  itself,  no  settled  opinion  as  to  the  meaning  of  either 
word.  Now  if,  as  the  next  step  in  the  process,  we  com- 
pare Iliad  B  56-58, 

^eto?  ytiot  ivvTTVLov  TjXOev  "Oveipo^ 
a/JL^poo-iTjv  Bia  vvKTa'  fiaXLara  Be  Necrro/at  Blo) 
€lSo9  T€  iJL€yed6<;  re  (jyvqv  dyx^cara  i(a/c€t, 

we  find  (l>vri  used,  and  a  third  word,  €lBo<;,  added,  while 
/jLey€do<;  is  used  in  place  of  Befxa^;.  This  change  of  word 
is  a  help  to  the  understanding  of  BefjLa<;.  Additional  light 
is  thrown  on  the  meaning  of  Se/xa?  by  Iliad  E  801, 

TuSeu?  rot  /jLLKpofi  fiev  erjv  Be/jLa<;, 

and  by  Iliad  T  226, 

avrjp  tJv?  re  /JLeya<i  re, 
€^o')(p^  *ApyeLQ)v  Kecf^aXrjv  re  Kal  evpea<i  co/jlov<;. 

From  these  passages  it  seems  that  /JUKpo^  and  ^eya? 
used  with  Befia^  indicate  that  the  latter  word  refers  to 
stature.  That  /jLeya<;  means  tall  may  be  seen  by  Iliady 
r  167,  ^eifoz^e?  Kec^dkrj  aXkot  eacrCy  a  head  taller.  There 
are  two  passages  in  the  Odyssey  which  give  us  some 
help  on  this  point:  Od.  e  21 1-2 18,  where  Calypso  says, 
in  comparing  herself  with  Penelope: 

ov  fiev  drjv  KeCv7)<^  ye  x^pelcov  ev^o^jbai  elvai 
ov  Be/jLa<;,  ovBe  (pvriv,  iirel  ovirco^;  ovBe  eoifcev 
dvqra^  adavdrrj<n  Be/jLa^  /cal  elBo<;  ipi^eiv. 


HOMER  281 

Odysseus  replies  to  Calypso,  lines  215  f: 

irdvra  jxaX.  ovveica  crelo  7repC<^p(ov  UrjveXoTreLa 

elSo?  aKiBvoTeprj  fjLeyedo^  t  eiadvra  iSeadac ' 

ri  jJLev  yap  /S/oord?  icTTt,  av  S'  aOdvaro^  koX  ay^pco'^. 

In  these  two  passages  we  find  Be/jLa^  and  <j)vri  finally 
replaced  by  fieyeOo^  and  elSo?.  These  words  are  definite 
enough  in  root  and  meaning  to  warrant  the  rendering 
stature  diXid  form  or  figure  for  them  and  for  Se/^a?  and  </)f7J 
as  well.  Homer  has  a  definite  picture  in  his  mind  in  all  of 
his  descriptions,  and  it  will  not  answer  to  call  this  picture 
"  vague  "  because  its  details  are  not  easily  discovered 
by  us. 

A  second  way,  or  perhaps  a  modification  of  the  first- 
mentioned  method,  is  to  follow  up  the  derivation  of  the 
word  under  discussion.  To  take  a  simple  Help  from 
example,  the  meaning  o^kvyj/ml^  —  so  frequent  Etymology, 
in  the  compound  ivKvrjfjLtSe^;  —  may  be  approximately 
determined  by  the  defining  of  kvij/jltj.  Passages  like 
Iliad  A  147,  and  519,  show  what  part  of  the  body  kvyj^lt] 
denotes.  Further  than  this  we  cannot  get  from  informa- 
tion furnished  by  the  poem,  kvtj/jll^  is  a  part  of  the  ar- 
mour and  for  the  /cvrjfjLr).  kptj/jlt)  is  part  of  the  leg  between 
ankle  and  knee.  I/iad  H  41  shows  that  they  were  made 
of  metal.  The  shape  must  be  determined,  if  at  all,  by 
outside  sources  of  knowledge  about  them.  I  would  en- 
courage students  to  make  drawings  to  illustrate  the  ideas 
they  get  from  reading  the  poem  itself.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  tests  of  understanding  a  passage  to  try  and  express 
in  graphic  form  its  meaning.  In  the  same  line  it  is  an 
excellent  idea  to  have  a  pupil  make  an  outline  drawing 
of  a  man's  figure,  and  then  as  the  various  words  for  parts 
of  the  body  are  met  with  in  reading,  fill  them  in  on  the 
appropriate  place  of  the  drawing.     I  would  advise  stu- 


282  HOMER 

dents  also  to  make  collections  of  the  epithets  used  with 
any  particular  word,  and  so  to  try  and  gain  something  of 
the  vision  which  the  poet  had  of  that  person  or  thing 
denoted  by  the  word.  It  is  this  clearness  of  vision 
which  means  everything  in  the  power  to  appreciate 
Homer.  The  teacher  must  have  it,  if  he  expects  to  be 
successful  in  his  work,  and  the  pupils  ought  to  gain 
something  of  it  if  they  are  to  enjoy  the  work  and  to  get 
real  and  lasting  benefit  from  it.  Now,  just  how  far  this 
or  a  similar  method  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  a 
class,  must,  as  in  so  many  other  points,  be  a  matter  of 
individual  judgment.  Something  of  it  can  be,  I  think, 
tried  in  any  class.  I  have  confidence  that  this  way  of 
working  will  prevent  the  danger  of  that  deadening  use 
of  a  vocabulary  in  a  purely  mechanical  way,  and  will 
bring  the  students  closer  to  the  real  living  poet.  I  shall 
mention  the  aid  to  interpretation  gained  from  works  of 
art  later. 

The  turning  of  the  Homeric  poetry  is  easy,  if  one 
regards  merely  the  story.  The  consequence  is  that  it  is 
Translating  usually  badly  done  by  students,  done  worse 
of  Homer.  \}ci-dx\.  the  translating  of  Xenophon.  Careful 
study  which  gives  a  firm  grasp  on  the  details  of  the  nar- 
ration is  the  only  preparation  which  can  make  an  adequate 
translation  possible.  This  must  be  followed  or  accom- 
panied by  an  equally  careful  study  of  the  style  and 
manner  of  the  narration.  As  a  guide  in  this  study  I 
think  that  there  is  nothing  better,  after  all  that  has  been 
said  and  written,  than  the  essays  of  Matthew  Arnold 
On  Translating  Homer.  Every  teacher  of  Homer  should 
be  familiar  with  them,  and  with  the  conclusions  therein 
stated,  and  I  should  advise  that  a  summary  of  their  con- 
tents, or  the  conclusions  at  least,  be  put  before  students 
at  an  early  moment  in  their  study  of  Homer.  Try  and 
get  students  to  make  direct  use  of  these  principles  of 


HOMER  283 

Arnold's  in  their  own  work  by  attempting  written  trans- 
lations for  themselves.  These  translations  should  be  in 
prose  at  first,  but  after  some  experience  has  been  gained, 
the  student  may  be  encouraged  to  make  metrical  ver- 
sions. If  this  be  tried,  each  verse  of  the  Greek  should 
be  expressed  wherever  possible  by  one  verse  in  English. 
An  adequate  appreciation  of  the  rapidity  of  movement 
of  the  Homeric  verse  can  best  be  gained  in  this  way. 

One  of  the  best  helps  that  I  have  found  in  trying  to 
point  out  these  characteristics  of  Homeric  thought  and 
style  consists  in  comparing  a  published  Eng-  comparison 
lish  version  with  the  Greek  text,  and  noting  of  English 
the  excellences  and  defects  of  the  rendering. 
This  forces  the  student  to  take  careful  note  of  many 
little  points  which  are  apt  to  be  overlooked.  This  com- 
parison of  one  English  version  with  the  Greek  may  thus 
be  extended  so  as  to  include  the  comparison  of  several 
translations,  one  of  which  might  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  each  pupil.  Or  one  may  place  side  by  side  on  a 
printed  sheet  three  or  four  standard  English  versions. 
In  using  these  it  is  well  to  take  each  sentence  by  itself, 
first  making  as  close  a  translation  as  can  be  done  in  the 
class,  and  then  comparing  the  English  renderings  of  the 
same  sentence  with  the  Greek  and  with  each  other. 
This  affords  opportunity  to  judge  how  far  one  transla- 
tor is  dependent  upon  another  for  phrases. 

To  illustrate  this  method,  I  reproduce  here  four 
English  translations  of  Iliad  A  428-487. 

This  passage  is  complete  in  itself,  and  affords  oppor- 
tunity for  studying  the  effect  of  the  translations  in  a 
larger  way,  as  well  as  for  testing  them  in  matters  of 
detail.  I  have  chosen  these  translations  because  they 
represent  different  periods  in  the  history  of  translating 
Homer  into  English,  and  because  each  presents  well- 
marked  individual  features. 


284  HOMER 

FOUR  TRANSLATIONS  INTO  ENGLISH  OF  HOMER, 
ILIAD   431-487. 

I.   Chapman,  1598. 

Thus,  made  she  her  remove. 
And  left  wrath  trying  on  her  son,  for  his  enforced  love. 

Ulysses,  with  the  hecatomb,  arrived  at  Chrj^sa's  shore ; 
And  when  amidst  the  hav'n's  deep  mouth,  they  came  to  use 

the  oar, 
They  straight  strook  sail,  then  roll'd  them  up,  and  on  the 

hatches  threw; 
The  top-mast  to    the    kelsine    then,   with   halyards    down 

they  drew; 
Then  brought  the  ship  to   port  with    oars;    then    forked 

anchor  cast; 
And,  'gainst  the  violence  of  storm,  for  drifting  made  her  fast. 

All  come  ashore,  they  all  expos'd  the  holy  hecatomb 
To  angry  Phoebus,  and,  with  it,  Chryseis  welcom'd  home  ; 
Whom  to  her  sire,  wise  Ithacus,  that  did  at  th'  altar  stand. 
For  honour  led,  and,  spoken  thus,  resign*d  her  to  his  hand : 
"  Chryses,  the  mighty  king  of  men,  great  Agamemnon,  sends 
Thy  lov'd  seed  by  my  hands  to  thine ;  and  to  thy  God  commends 
A  hecatomb,  which  my  charge  is  to  sacrifice,  and  seek 
Our  much-sigh-mix'd  woe  his  recure,  invok'd  by  ev'ry  Greek." 
Thus  he  resign'd  her,  and  her  sire  receiv'd  her  highly  joy'd. 
About  the  well-built  altar,  then,  they  orderly  employ'd 
The  sacred  off'ring,  wash'd  their  hands,  took  salt  cakes ;  and 

the  priest. 
With  hands'held  up  to  heav'n,  thus  pray'd :  "  O  thou  that  all 

things  seest, 
Fautour  of  Chrysa,  whose  fair  hand  doth  guardfuUy  dispose 
Celestial  Cilia,  governing  in  all  pow'r  Tenedos, 
O  hear  thy  priest,  and  as  thy  hand,  in  free  grace  to  my  pray'rs, 
Shot  fervent  plague-shafts  through  the  Greeks,  now  hearten 

their  affairs 


HOMER  285 


II.   Dryden,  1697. 

Meantime  with  prosperous  gales  Ulysses  brought 
The  slave,  and  ship  with  sacrifices  fraught, 
To  Chrysa's  port :  where,  entering  with  the  tide, 
He  dropp'd  his  anchors,  and  his  oars  he  plied. 
Furl'd  every  sail,  and,  drawing  down  the  mast, 
His  vessel  moor'd  ;  and  made  with  haulsers  fast. 
Descending  on  the  plain,  ashore  they  bring 
The  hecatomb  to  please  the  shooter  king. 
The  dame  before  an  altar's  holy  fire 
Ulysses  led ;  and  thus  bespoke  her  sire. 

Reverenc'd  be  thou,  and  be  thy  god  ador'd : 
The  king  of  men  thy  daughter  has  restor'd  ; 
And  sent  by  me  with  presents  and  with  prayer ; 
He  recommends  him  to  thy  pious  care  ; 
That  Phoebus  at  thy  suit  his  wrath  may  cease, 
And  give  the  penitent  offenders  peace. 

He  said,  and  gave  her  to  her  father's  hands. 
Who  glad  receiv'd  her,  free  from  servile  bands. 
This  done,  in  order  they,  with  sober  grace, 
Their  gifts  around  the  well-built  altar  place. 
Then  wash'd,  and  took  the  cakes ;  while  Chryses  stood 
With  hands  upheld,  and  thus  invok'd  his  god. 

God  of  the  silver  bow,  whose  eyes  survey 
The  sacred  Cilia,  thou,  whose  awful  sway, 
Chrysa  the  bless'd,  and  Tenedos  obey : 
Now  hear,  as  thou  before  my  prayer  hast  heard, 
Against  the  Grecians,  and  their  prince,  preferr'd : 
Once  thou  hast  honour'd,  honour  once  again 
Thy  priest ;  nor  let  his  second  vows  be  vain. 
But  from  the  afflicted  host  and  humbled  prince 
Avert  thy  wrath,  and  cease  thy  pestilence. 
Apollo  heard,  and,  conquering  his  disdain, 
Unbent  his  bow,  and  Greece  respir'd  again. 

Now  when  the  solemn  rites  of  prayer  were  past> 


286  HOMER 

I.    Chapman,  1598  —  Continued. 

With  health  renew'd,  and  quite  remove  th'  infection  from  their 

blood." 
He  pray'd ;  and  to  his  pray'rs  again  the  God  propitious  stood. 
All,  after  pray'r,  cast  on  salt  cakes,  drew  back,  kill'd,  flay'd  the 

beeves. 
Cut  out  and  dubb'd  with  fat  their  thighs,  fair  dress'd  with  doubled 

leaves, 
And  on  them  all  the  sweetbreads  prick'd.     The  priest,  with  small 

sere  wood, 
Did  sacrifice,   pour'd  on  red  wine;    by  whom  the  young  men 

stood, 
And  turn'd,  in  five  ranks,  spits ;  on  which  (the  legs  enough)  they 

eat 
The  inwards ;  then  in  giggots  cut  the  other  fit  for  meat, 
And  put  to  fire ;  which  roasted  well  they  drew.     The  labour  done, 
They  serv'd  the  feast  in,  that  fed  all  to  satisfaction. 

Desire  of  meat  and  wine  thus  quench'd,  the  youths  crown'd  cups 

of  wine 
Drunk  off,  and  fill'd  again  to  all.     That  day  was  held  divine, 
And  spent  in  paeans  to  the  Sun,  who  heard  with  pleased  ear; 
When  whose  bright  chariot  stoop'd  to  sea,  and  twilight  hid  the 

clear. 
All  soundly  on  their  cables  slept,  ev'n  till  the  night  was  worn. 
And  when  the  lady  of  the  light,  the  rosy-finger'd  Morn, 
Rose  from  the  hills,  all  fresh  arose,  and  to  the  camp  retir'd. 
Apollo  with  a  fore-right  wind  their  swelling  bark  inspir'd. 
The  top-mast  hoisted,  milk-white  sails  on  his  round  breast  they 

put, 
The  mizens  strooted  with  the  gale,  the  ship  her  course  did  cut 
So  swiftly  that  the  parted  waves  against  her  ribs  did  roar ; 
Which,  coming  to  the  camp,  they  drew  aloft  the  sandy  shore. 
Where,  laid  on  stocks,  each  soldier  kept  his  quarter  as  before. 


HOMER  287 

II.   Hkyhis.^,  16^7  —  Continued. 

Their  salted  cakes  on  crackling  flames  they  cast. 

Then,  turning  back,  the  sacrifice  they  sped : 

The  fatted  oxen  slew,  and  flay'd  the  dead. 

Chopp'd  off  their  nervous  thighs,  and  next  prepar'd 

To  involve  the  lean  in  cauls,  and  mend  with  lard. 

Sweetbreads  and  collops  were  with  skewers  prick'd 

About  the  sides ;  imbibing  what  they  deck'd. 

The  priest  with  holy  hands  was  seen  to  tine 

The  cloven  wood,  and  pour  the  ruddy  wine. 

The  youth  approach'd  the  fire,  and,  as  it  burn'd, 

On  five  sharp  broachers  rank'd,  the  roast  they  turn'd; 

These  morsels  stay'd  their  stomachs  :  then  the  rest 

They  cut  in  legs  and  fillets  for  the  feast ; 

Which  drawn  and  serv'd,  their  hunger  they  appease 

With  savoury  meat,  and  set  their  minds  at  ease. 

Now  when  the  rage  of  eating  was  repell'd, 
The  boys  with  generous  wine  the  goblets  fill'd. 
The  first  libations  to  the  gods  they  pour : 
And  then  with  songs  indulge  the  genial  hour. 
Holy  debauch  !     Till  day  to  night  they  bring, 
With  hymns  and  paeans  to  the  bowyer  king. 
At  sun-set  to  their  ship  they  make  return. 
And  snore  secure  on  decks,  till  rosy  morn. 

The  skies  with  dawning  day  were  purpled  o'er ; 
Awak'd,  with  labouring  oars  they  leave  the  shore. 
The  Power  appeas'd,  with  winds  suffic'd  the  sail, 
The  bellying  canvass  strutted  with  the  gale ; 
The  waves  indignant  roar  with  surly  pride. 
And  press  against  the  sides,  and  beaten  off  divide. 
They  cut  the  foamy  way,  with  force  impell'd 
Superior,  till  the  Trojan  port  they  held  : 
Then,  hauling  on  the  strand,  their  galley  moor, 
And  pitch  their  tents  along  the  crooked  shore. 


288  HOMER 


III.   Pope,  1715. 

The  goddess  spoke :  the  rolling  waves  unclose  ; 

Then  down  the  steep  she  plunged  from  whence  she  rose, 

And  left  him  sorrowing  on  the  lonely  coast, 

In  wild  resentment  for  the  fair  he  lost. 
In  Chrysa's  port  now  sage  Ulysses  rode ; 

Beneath  the  deck  the  destined  victims  stow'd : 

The  sails  they  furl'd,  they  lash'd  the  mast  aside, 

And  dropp'd  their  anchors,  and  the  pinnace  tied. 

Next  on  the  shore  their  hecatomb  they  land ; 

Chrysei's  last  descending  on  the  strand. 

Her,  thus  returning  from  the  furrow'd  main, 

Ulysses  led  to  Phoebus'  sacred  fane ; 

Where  at  his  solemn  altar,  as  the  maid 

He  gave  to  Chryses,  thus  the  hero  said : 
"  Hail,  reverend  priest !  to  Phoebus'  awful  dome 

A  suppliant  I  from  great  Atrides  come : 

Unransom'd,  here  receive  the  spotless  fair; 

Accept  the  hecatomb  the  Greeks  prepare ; 

And  may  thy  god  who  scattif  s  darts  around, 
Atoned  by  sacrifice,  desist  to  wound." 
At  this,  the  sire  embraced  the  maid  again, 

So  sadly  lost,  so  lately  sought  in  vain. 
Then  near  the  altar  of  the  darting  king. 
Disposed  in  rank  their  hecatomb  they  bring; 
With  water  purify  their  hands,  and  take 
The  sacred  offering  of  the  salted  cake ; 
While  thus  with  arms  devoutly  raised  in  air. 
And  solemn  voice,  the  priest  directs  his  prayer: 

"  God  of  the  silver  bow,  thy  ear  incline, 
Whose  power  incircles  Cilia  the  divine  ; 
Whose  sacred  eye  thy  Tenedos  surveys. 
And  gilds  fair  Chrysa  with  distinguish'd  rays ! 
If,  fired  to  vengeance  at  thy  priest's  request. 
Thy  direful  darts  inflict  the  raging  pest : 
Once  more  attend  !  avert  the  wasteful  woe, 
And  smile  propitious,  and  unbend  thy  bow." 


HOMER  289 

IV.    COWPER,  1 791. 

So  saying,  she  went ;  but  him  she  left  enraged 
For  fair  Briseis  sake,  forced  from  his  arms 
By  stress  of  power.     Meantime  Ulysses  came 
To  Chrysa  with  the  Hecatomb  in  charge. 
Arrived  within  the  haven  deep,  their  sails 
Furling,  they  stowed  them  in  the  bark  below. 
Then  by  its  tackle  lowering  swift  the  mast 
Into  its  crutch,  they  briskly  push'd  to  land, 
Heaved  anchors  out,  and  moor'd  the  vessel  fast. 
Forth  came  the  mariners,  and  trod  the  beach ; 
Forth  came  the  victims  of  Apollo  next, 
And,  last,  Chrysei's.     Her  Ulysses  led 
Toward  the  altar,  gave  her  to  the  arms 
Of  her  own  father,  and  him  thus  address'd. 

"  O  Chryses !  Agamemnon,  King  of  men, 
Hath  sent  thy  daughter  home,  with  whom  we  bring 
An  Hecatomb  on  all  our  host's  behalf 
To  Phcebus,  hoping  to  appease  the  God 
By  whose  dread  shafts  the  Argives  now  expire." 

So  saying,  he  gave  her  to  him,  who  with  joy 
Received  his  daughter.     Then,  before  the  shrine 
Magnificent  in  order  due  they  ranged 
The  noble  Hecatomb.     Each  laved  his  hands 
And  took  the  salted  meal,  and  Chryses  made 
His  fervent  prayer  with  hands  upraised  on  high. 

"  God  of  the  silver  bow,  who  with  thy  power 
Encirclest  Chrysa,  and  who  reign'st  supreme 
In  Tenedos,  and  Cilia  the  divine  ! 
Thou  prov'dst  propitious  to  my  first  request. 
Hast  honour'd  me,  and  punished  sore  the  Greeks ; 
Hear  yet  thy  servant's  prayer ;  take  from  their  host 
At  once  the  loathsome  pestilence  away  !  " 

So  Chryses  prayed,  whom  Phoebus  heard  well-pleased ; 
Then  prayed  the  Grecians  also,  and  with  meal 
Sprinkling  the  victims,  their  retracted  necks 
First  pierced,  then  flay'd  them ;  the  disjointed  thighs 
19 


290 


HOMER 


III.   Pope,  1715—  Continued. 

So  Chryses  pray'd.     Apollo  heard  his  prayer : 
And  now  the  Greeks  their  hecatomb  prepare ; 
Between  their  horns  the  salted  barley  threw, 
And,  with  their  heads  to  heaven,  the  victims  slew: 
The  limbs  they  sever  from  the  inclosing  hide ; 
The  thighs,  selected  to  the  gods,  divide  : 
On  these,  in  double  cauls  involved  with  art, 
The  choicest  morsels  lay  from  every  part. 
The  priest  himself  before  his  altar  stands, 
And  burns  the  offering  with  his  holy  hands, 
Pours  the  black  wine,  and  sees  the  flames  aspire ; 
The  youth  with  instruments  surround  the  fire : 
The  thighs  thus  sacrificed,  and  entrails  dress'd, 
Th'  assistants  part,  transfix,  and  roast  the  rest : 
Then  spread  the  tables,  the  repast  prepare  ; 
Each  takes  his  seat,  and  each  receives  his  share. 
When  now  the  rage  of  hunger  was  repress'd, 
With  pure  libations  they  conclude  the  feast ; 
The  youths  with  wine  the  copious  goblets  crown'd, 
And,  pleased,  dispense  the  flowing  bowls  around ; 
With  hymns  divine  the  joyous  banquet  ends, 
The  paeans  lengthen'd  till  the  sun  descends : 
The  Greeks,  restored,  the  grateful  notes  prolong ; 
Apollo  listens,  and  approves  the  song. 

'T  was  night;  the  chiefs  beside  their  vessel  lie. 
Till  rosy  morn  had  purpled  o'er  the  sky : 
Then  launch,  and  hoist  the  mast :  indulgent  gales. 
Supplied  by  Phoebus,  fill  the  swelling  sails  ; 
The  milk-white  canvas  bellying  as  they  blow. 
The  parted  ocean  foams  and  roars  below : 
Above  the  bounding  billows  swift  they  flew, 
Till  now  the  Grecian  camp  appear'd  in  view. 
Far  on  the  beach  they  haul  their  bark  to  land, 
(The  crooked  keel  divides  the  yellow  sand,) 
Then  part,  where  stretch'd  along  the  winding  bay, 
The  ships  and  tents  in  mingled  prospect  lay. 


HOMER  291 

IV.   CowPER,  1791  —  Continued. 

They,  next,  invested  with  the  double  caul, 
Which  with  crude  slices  thin  they  overspread. 
The  priest  burned  incense,  and  libation  poured 
Large  on  the  hissing  brands,  while,  him  beside, 
Busy  with  the  spit  and  prong,  stood  many  a  youth 
Trained  to  the  task.     The  thighs  with  fire  consumed. 
They  gave  to  each  his  portion  of  the  maw. 
Then  slashed  the  remnant,  pierced  it  with  the  spits, 
And  managing  with  culinary  skill 
The  roast,  withdrew  it  from  the  spits  again. 
Their  whole  task  thus  accomplish'd,  and  the  board 
Set  forth,  they  feasted,  and  were  all  sufficed. 
When  neither  hunger  more  nor  thirst  remained 
Unsatisfied,  boys  crown'd  the  beakers  high 
With  wine  delicious,  and  from  right  to  left 
Distributing  the  cups,  served  every  guest. 
Thenceforth  the  youths  of  the  Achaian  race 
To  song  propitiatory  gave  the  day, 
Paeans  to  Phoebus,  Archer  of  the  skies, 
Chaunting  melodious.     Pleased,  Apollo  heard. 
But,  when,  the  sun  descending,  darkness  fell, 
They  on  the  beach  beside  their  hawsers  slept; 
And,  when  the  day-spring's  daughter  rosy-palm'd 
Aurora  look'd  abroad,  then  back  they  steer'd 
To  the  vast  camp.     Fair  wind,  and  blowing  fresh, 
Apollo  sent  them  ;  quick  they  rear'd  the  mast, 
Then  spread  the  unsullied  canvass  to  the  gale. 
And  the  wind  filled  it.     Roared  the  sable  flood 
Around  the  bark,  that  ever  as  she  went 
Dash'd  wide  the  brine,  that  scudded  swift  away. 
Thus  reaching  soon  the  spacious  camp  of  Greece, 
Their  galley  they  updrew  sheer  o'er  the  sands 
From  the  rude  surge  remote,  then  propp'd  her  sides 
With  scantlings  long,  and  sought  their  several  tents. 


292 


HOMER 


Other  passages  suitable  for  this  purpose  are  Iliad  B 
35-52,  84-100,  299-320.  Any  translations  at  hand  may 
be  used.  I  think  that  Bryant  may  well  be  studied  ;  and 
Pope's  translation,  which  is  so  generally  prescribed  now 
as  a  part  of  the  high  school  course  in  English,  will  gen- 
erally be  available.  Pope's  version  is  instructive.  A 
student  will  soon  see  where  it  is  faulty,  and,  with  a  little 

help,  will  see  just  why  it  is  faulty.     I  would 
Keeping  .... 

the  Greek        encourage   translatmg   m    the    order   of  the 

Order  in  Greek.      It  will   be    a   surprise  to  one  who 

Translating.  .-,/,. 

attempts   it   for   the   first  time    to    see   how 

closely    the    Homeric    word    order    may    be    followed, 

and  how  good   an  English  sentence   such  an  order  in 

translating   will    produce.     Verses   601    and    following 

of  Iliad  A  may  be  tried  as  an  experiment.     As  with 

the    first   reading    and   translating   of   Xenophon,    the 

secret   of  ultimate  success  and  satisfaction  lies  in  slow 

and  careful  work  at  the  start.     There  is  no  other  way 

possible. 

I  have  not  felt  it  necessary  to  enter  into  details 
concerning  the  learning  of  the  forms  peculiar  to  the 
The  Homeric  Homeric  poems.  Most  of  the  grammars  and 
Language.  ^-^e  school  editions  without  exception  give 
enough  material  in  the  way  of  explanation  in  this  field. 
They  do  not,  however,  or  most  of  them  do  not,  exhibit 
in  regular  paradigms  the  forms  of  declension  and  of 
conjugation. 

These  I  would  encourage  the  student  to  make  up  for 
himself  in  a  note  book,  filling  up  the  paradigms  as  the 
forms  occur  in  his  reading.  For  example,  the  first 
twenty-five  lines  of  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad  afford 
examples  of  the  Homeric  forms  for  the  genitive  singular 
and  the  dative  plural  of  the  -0  stems ;  of  the  genitive, 
dative,  and  accusative  singular  of  the  third  declension 
nouns  in  -et^. 


HOMER 


293 


The  teacher  may  well  point  out  that  from  the  stand- 
point of  an  analytic  treatment  the  Homeric  forms  are 
easier  to  understand  than  the  Attic  forms  corresponding 
to  them.  fiaa-LXrjo^,  for  example,  shows  the  ending  of 
the    genitive    singular    more    clearly    than    the   Attic 

Caution  should  be  observed  in  putting  such  questions 
as  "  What  is  the  Attic  form  of  such  and  such  a  word  ?  " 
In  such  a  case  as  the  genitive  singular  ending  Homeric  and 
-oLo  this  does  well  enough,  because  it  can  be  Attic  Forms, 
pointed  out  how  -oco  through  the  stages  -olo^  -00  passes 
into  the  contracted  form  -ov. 

But  the  Attic  ending  -ov  for  masculine  nouns  of  the 
first  declension  is  not  derived  from  the  Homeric  ending 
-ao,  or  -eft),  and  to  ask  what  this  form  is,  or  what  it 
would  be,  in  Attic  serves  only  to  create  confusion  as  to 
the  historic  relations  of  the  forms.  The  same  holds 
true  of  the  relations  of  the  forms  for  the  dative  plural 
in  -0L<n  and  -ot?.  The  latter  is  not  derived  from  the 
former.  Neither  is  the  Attic  subjunctive  ending  -77  de- 
rived from  the  longer  Homeric  form  in  -yen. 

The  Homeric  language  is  best  treated  as  an  independ- 
ent form,  and  for  its  understanding  and  comprehension 
there  is  no  need  of  discussing  its  relations  to  other 
forms  of  Greek  in  literary  use.  If  comparison  of  forms 
is  undertaken  at  all,  the  teacher  should  exercise  care  to 
avoid  such  explanations  as,  because  of  their  unscientific 
character,  must  be  unlearned  subsequently.  The  lan- 
guage must  be  mastered  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make 
the  subject  matter  clear.  Further  study  in  school 
should  be  directed  towards  getting  a  firm  hold  on  the 
spirit  of  the  poem,  for  that,  after  all,  is  the  great  and 
all-important  end.  This  feeling  of  and  for  the  real 
spirit  of  Homer  will  be  the  vital  and  permanent  pos- 
session gained  from  Homeric  study. 


294  HOMER 

For  many,  perhaps  for  most,  teachers  the  question  as 
to  just  what  parts  of  the  Iliad  or  of  the  Odyssey  he  shall 
WhatPor-  choose  for  reading  with  his  class  is  not  an 
tions  to  read,  open  one.  The  selections  are  fixed  for  him 
in  advance,  either  by  the  curriculum  of  the  school  in 
which  he  is  teaching,  or  by  certain  entrance  require- 
ments prescribed  by  some  college  or  by  an  association 
of  colleges.  The  question  is  one,  however,  well  worth 
consideration,  for  upon  its  answer,  and  upon  the  plan 
followed  in  consequence  thereof,  must  depend  in  consid- 
erable degree  the  success  of  the  teaching  itself  The 
principles  which  should  guide  one  in  making  his  selec- 
tions have  been  very  well  stated  by  Dr.  A.  Lange  in 
Lehrprobeii  und Lehrgdnge  aiis  der  Praxis  der  Gymnasien 
und  Realschulen,  No.  43,  p.  48. 

"  As  it  is  not  possible  to  read  all  of  Homer,  selections 
for  this  purpose  must  be  made,  and  they  should  be  made 
according  to  the  following  principles : 

"  I.  Passages  whose  subject  matter  has  a  high  poeti- 
cal value,  or  particularly  valuable  ethical  contents. 

"  II.  Passages  which  shall  fix  and  hold  the  interest  of 
the  pupil. 

**  III.  Passages  which  have  a  permanent  value  in 
their  relation  to  culture  and  to  its  history;  that  is, 
which  have  furnished  material  of  a  permanent  influence 
in  art  and  literature.  For  example,  the  picture  of  Zeus 
in  Iliad  K  528  fi".: 

7]  Kol  Kvaverjatv  eir    o^pvai  vevae  J^povicov. 
afjifipoacat  B*  apa  ')(^alTaL  iireppwaavro   ava/CTO<; 
Kparw:  aw  aOavdroLO  •  /xeyav  B'  eXeXi^ev^'OXv/jLTTOV. 

Or  that  of  Hermes  in  Odyssey  e  43  fi*. : 

ouS*  airiOrjG-e  BiciKTopo^  apy€L(j>6vT7j<i. 
avTL/c*  eireiO^  vtto  iroa-alv  iB^aaro  KaXa  ireBtXa^ 
afi^poata  ')(^pvaeia^  rd  jxiv  (f>€pov  rf/JLev  e(f>   vyprjv 


HOMER 


295 


7]^  liT  airelpova  f^alav  a/jua  ttvoctj^;  avefjLOLO, 
eCkero  he  pd^hov^  rrj  r  avBpcov  ofM/xara  deXyec 
a)V  ideXet,  tois  S*  avre  koI  vTrvcaovTa^  iyeipei. 
TTfV  jjLeTOL  Xepcrlv  e^o^v  irerero  Kparv^  apyei^ovrrj^. 

"  IV.   Each  portion  selected  must  be  complete  in  itself. 

**V.  Passages  should  be  chosen  in  which  the  chief 
characters  are  active,  and  which  show  the  basic  fabric 
of  the  poem ;  that  is,  of  the  Odyssey,  passages  in  which 
Odysseus  appears  as  chief  figure,  and  of  the  I/iad  those 
in  which  Achilles  is  prominent.  But  in  the  Iliad  there 
are  other  heroes  to  whose  deeds  whole  passages  are 
devoted." 

These  principles  of  selection  may  be  applied  to  both 
poems.  For  the  Iliad,  however,  we  must  face  another 
problem,  which  is  this:  Shall  we  take  pas-  \s^\>ssfi 
sages  alone  which  carry  forward  the  main  ^** 
action?  Or  shall  we  include  in  our  selections  those 
which  contain  episodes  not  connected  so  directly  with 
the  wrath  of  Achilles,  the  quarrel  with  Agamennon,  and 
the  results  attendant  thereon  ? 

And  further :  Shall  we,  if  we  do  include  these  episodes, 
take  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  come  in  our 
Homer,  or  treat  them  separately,  as  stories  not  directly 
connected  with  the  main  narrative?  It  is  of  interest  to 
see  how  Dr.  Lange's  selections  from  the  Iliad,  made  on 
the  basis  he  advocates,  turn  out.  I  add,  therefore,  the 
Iliad  as  he  arranges  it  in  his  scheme. 

The  Iliad  is  begun  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  study  of 
Greek,  and  after  the  Odyssey  has  been  read  during  the 
two  years  immediately  previous. 

He  prescribes  Book  I.  all,  II.  1-483,  III.  all,  IV.  i- 
250,  VI.  119-529,  VII.  1-3 1 2,  IX.  1-523  and  600-713, 
XI.  1-520,  XII.  35-471,  XV.  592-746.  This  makes  a 
total  of  4225  verses  for  this  year  of  reading.  It  is  fol- 
lowed in  the  fourth  year  of  Homeric  reading,  which  is 


296  HOMER 

the  sixth  in  Greek  study  and  the  final  year  of  the  Ger- 
man gymnasium,  by  these  passages  of  the  remaining 
books  of  the  Iliad:  XVI.  all,  XVII.  1-236,  426-462, 
651-761,  XVIII.  all,  XIX.  1-214,  277-424,  XXI.  all, 
XXII.  all,  XXIII.  1-261,  XXIV.  all.  Or  a  total  in  this 
year  of  4421  verses.  The  amount  covered  in  both 
these  years  is  8646  verses,  which  is  more  than  one  half 
of  the  total  number  of  verses,  15,693,  of  the  poem.  I 
will  not  go  through  the  Odyssey  in  similar  detailed 
fashion,  but  his  total  number  of  lines  there  is  5414,  or 
less  than  one  half  the  total  number  of  12,110  verses  in 
and  in  the  the  entire  poem.  In  this  scheme  for  the 
o<*y»ey.  readings  in  the  Odyssey y  Books  II.,  III.,  IV  , 
XV.,  XVIII.,  XX.,  XXIV.  are  omitted  altogether,  and 
79  verses  only  are  included  of  Book  I.  This  is  in  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  latest  school  edition  of  the  Odyssey 
published  in  the  United  States,  in  which  Books  I.-IV. 
are  given  entire. 

Returning  to  the  consideration  of  the  Iliads  it  will  be 
evident  that  the  four  thousand  lines  which  our  present 
programme  of  reading  requires,  may  be  so 
rangement  chosen  from  the  poem  that  they  will  include 
of  School  more  of  its  famous  parts  than  they  do  now. 
As  it  is,  I  think  the  student  rarely  gets  a 
clear  idea  of  the  action  of  the  poem.  The  first  book 
is  reasonably  clear.  Achilles'  resentment,  his  prayer 
to  his  mother  Thetis,  her  request  of  Zeus  and  the 
promise  of  the  latter,  are  plainly  told,  and  there  is 
none  of  that  bewildering  confusion  of  motive  which 
begins  almost  at  the  start  in  Book  IL  To  select  from 
the  Iliad  such  portions  as  would  carry  out  the  theme 
stated  in  Book  I.,  and  contain  the  subsequent  decision 
of  Achilles,  first  to  send  Patroclus,  and  then,  after  the 
latter's  death,  to  enter  the  fight  himself,  the  resulting 
fight  with  Hector,  the  death  and  burial  of  Hector  and 


HOMER 


297 


the  ransoming  of  his  body  by  Priam,  —  this  would  give  a 
complete  story  and  include  some  of  the  most  famous 
scenes  of  the  poem.  Such  a  plan,  the  details  of  which 
might  be  varied  by  any  teacher  according  to  his  own 
tastes,  or  as  the  Hmitations  of  time  permit,  would  have 
decided  advantages  over  the  plan  of  reading  now  fol- 
lowed. A  scheme  may  be  worked  out  by  the  aid  of 
Leaf's  arrangement  in  the  introduction  to  the  second 
volume  of  his  edition.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  any 
theory  of  the  "  Homeric  question  "  should  be  made  the 
basis  of  selection.  That  question  is  not  suited  for  dis- 
cussion in  school,  and  need  not  be  raised.  It  is  simply 
a  question  of  selecting  from  a  larger  body  of  poetry  a 
sufficient  amount  for  the  purpose  in  hand. 

I  believe  the  Odyssey  is  the  better  poem  with  which 
to  begin  the  school  work  in  Homer.  The  Greek  is 
easier,  for  one  thing,  and  the  story  is  plainer  Advantages 
and  presents  more  variety  within  a  limited  of  the 
compass  of  text.  Books  IX.-XH.  may  be  ^^'^^' 
taken  first,  and  followed  up  by  Books  V.,  VI.,  VII.,  VIII., 
and  a  part  of  XIII.  These  books,  in  which  large  omis- 
sions may  be  made  according  to  choice,  as  necessity 
may  compel,  give  the  story  of  the  wanderings  of  Odys- 
seus from  Troy  back  to  Ithaca.  They  are  of  especial 
interest  in  matter  and  manner  to  students  reading  Vir- 
gil's ^neid,  and  well  suited  to  be  studied  at  the  same 
time.  If  this  plan  is  followed  in  the  preparatory  course, 
the  student  who  enters  college  will  be  able  to  read,  with 
his  increased  power,  a  much  larger  portion  of  the  Iliad. 
But  the  interests  of  the  pupils  who  do  not  go  beyond 
the  school  should  not  be  forgotten,  and  they  may  some- 
times be  made  the  controlling  motive  in  choosing  be- 
tween the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. 


CHAPTER  V 

GBEEK   COMPOSITION 
REFERENCES. 

Sidgwick,  A.  Introduction  to  Greek  Prose  Composition.  London, 
Longmans;  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.  Far  too  difficult  a  book  for  use  in 
schools,  but  containing  much  explanatory  matter  of  great  value  to 
teachers.  A  further  work  by  the  same  author  is  Lectures  on  Greek 
Prose  Composition,  London  and  New  York,  Longmans.  This,  too,  is 
full  of  valuable  hints  and  suggestions. 

Allinson,  F.  G.  Greek  Prose  Composition.  Boston,  AUyn  &  Bacon, 
1890.  Contains  good  "  Notes  on  Idiom  and  Syntax,  Rules  for  the  Cases, 
Rules  for  the  Accent." 

By  common  agreement  in  the  statements  of  all  teach- 
ers whose  experiences  I  have  learned,  this  is  the  part  of 
Subject  is  not  Greek  instruction  in  school  which  is  regarded 
liked-  with  the  least  satisfaction  by  teachers  them- 

selves, and  the  part  which  gives  the  most  meagre  returns 
for  the  labour  it  involves.  Teachers  and  school  programs 
are  apt  to  slight  it,  and  students  seek  to  shirk  it  as  far  as 
they  can.  And  yet  it  ought  not  to  prove  so  uninterest- 
ing. Composition  is  in  its  nature  not  unlike  a  problem 
to  be  solved.  In  a  way  it  is  like  a  puzzle  to  be  guessed. 
Now,  this  characteristic,  this  containing  something  to  be 
discovered,  to  be  guessed,  has  always  the  power  of 
attracting  a  student's  mind.  But  the  puzzle  must  not  be 
too  difficult.  One  tires  soon  of  puzzles  which  he  cannot 
work  out  to  an  evident  answer,  or  of  riddles  which  he 
Because  it  is  cannot  guess.  At  the  same  time  the  problem 
often  too  must  be  hard  enough  to  furnish  stimulus  to 
^^^^*^^**  the  pupil.  I  believe  that  most  of  the  mistakes 
made  in  the  teaching  of  Greek  composition,  so  far  as 


GREEK  COMPOSITION 


299 


books  for  that  purpose  go,  lie,  first,  in  making  the  problem 
or  problems  too  difficult.  One  passage  offers  often  too 
many  hard  points  for  solution.  I  quote  as  an  example 
a  part  of  the  first  exercise  set  in  a  book  on  composition, 
a  book  which  has  some  good  features.  It  is  as  follows  : 
"  When,  now,  the  Cilician  queen  saw  the  Greeks  with 
spears  atilt  coming  on  and  running  with  shouts  toward 
the  Persian  camp,  and  saw  the  barbarians  running  away 
in  fright,  she  fled  from  her  carriage  in  great  alarm.  And 
the  fear  of  all  the  barbarians  was  so  great  that  even  the 
marketmen  forsook  their  wares  and  ran  away.  Cyrus, 
however,  was  much  pleased  when  from  his  chariot  he 
saw  the  brilliant  discipline  of  the  Greeks,  who  ran  with 
laughter  to  their  tents,  while  the  barbarians  feared  them 
and  were  fleeing  from  them ;  for  he  was  taking  the  Greeks 
with  him  that  he  might  not  be  forced  to  wage  a  long  war 
with  the  king,  but  that  he  might  destroy  his  great  power 
in  one  battle."  The  Greek  text  on  which  this  exercise  is 
based  affords  no  example  of  such  complex  arrangement 
of  clauses  as  the  last  sentence  here  seems  to  call  for. 
The  multiplication  of  difficulties  produces  at  least  two 
bad  results :  first,  a  discouragement  on  the  part  of  the 
student;  and  secondly,  a  too  lenient  judgment  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  of  the  results  reached  by  the  pupil. 
I  can  see  no  value  at  all  in  the  writing  of  Greek  unless  the 
results  are  to  be  exact  and  are  to  be  measured  by  exact 
standards,  and  by  rules  which  are  so  definite  that  the  stu- 
dents can  understand  and  master  them.  Otherwise  the 
exercise  can  result  only  in  a  half  knowledge  which  will 
reveal  itself  in  equally  lax  habits  in  translating  from  Greek 
into  English. 

A  second  cause  which  contributes  in  my  judgment  to 
the  lack  of  success  so  often  met  with  in  the      subject 
teaching  of  Greek  composition  is  the  selec-      Matter, 
tion  of  subject  matter  for  the  exercises  in  writing  which  is 


300  GREEK  COMPOSITION 

not  connected  with  the  Greek  text  being  read  at  the  same 
time.  This  habit  brings  up  a  new  vocabulary  of  words, 
rarely  furnishes  topics  of  interest,  and,  what  is  the  most 
important  of  all,  does  not  afford  an  opportunity  of  com- 
paring the  exercises  written  by  the  student  with  the 
original  Greek  text.  This  method  is  fortunately  far  less 
common  than  formerly. 

I  think  there  is  substantial  agreement  as  to  the  object 
of  the  work  in  Greek  composition  in  the  school.  It  is  to 
Object  of  "  get  a  firmer  hold  on  the  facts  of  accidence, 
Composition,  ^f  syntax  and  of  idiom,"  to  enable  the 
student  to  read  Greek  more  intelligently  and  to  translate 
more  exactly.  It  is,  indeed,  true  here  that  "  writing 
maketh  the  exact  man."  The  writing  of  Greek  should, 
I  think,  be  kept  up  continuously  from  the  very  first 
lesson,  —  a  daily  exercise,  if  possible,  and  at  any  rate, 
not  less  frequently  than  once  a  week.  The  work  ought 
to  be  (i)  simple,  —  that  is,  proportionate  to  the  knowl- 
edge already  gained;  (2)  progressive  in  difficulty; 
(3)  designed  to  cover  systematically  the  most  important 
parts  of  noun  and  of  verb  syntax;  (4)  be  directly 
connected  in  subject  matter  with  the  reading  which  is 
being  carried  on  at  the  same  time. 

When  the  student  begins  the  reading  of  the  Anabasis, 
and  has  presumably  written  sentences  in  Greek  in  con- 
Composition  section  with  the  beginners'  book  he  has  been 
while  Read-  using,  he  will  be  ready  for  composition  work 
^^*  somewhat   more  difficult  and  of  a  different 

kind.  Just  what  will  be  most  needed  and  just  what  he 
will  be  prepared  to  do,  must  be  a  matter  to  be  settled  by 
the  individual  judgment  of  his  teacher.  The  question 
will  require  possibly  a  different  answer  for  each  class. 
I  think  one  may  assume  that  the  average  student  will 
have  learned  by  this  time  how  to  use  the  cases  in  their 
commoner  constructions,  and  the  moods  and  tenses  in 


GREEK  COMPOSITION  301 

the  less  complicated  forms  of  sentences.  He  must  now 
face  longer  sentences  in  his  reading,  and  with  them  the 
problem  of  arranging  clauses  in  the  sentence.  This, 
then,  suggests  the  first  point  of  importance  and  often  of 
difficulty. 

The  Articulation  of  Clauses.     It  is  certainly  true  that 
the  Greek  makes  use  of  a  greater  number  of  particles  to 
express  various  relations  of  clauses  than  the  ^^^.^^^^ 
English  does.     And  yet  I  do  not  assent  to  of  Greek 
the  rule   often  given,    **  Always    begin  each 
clause  with  a  conjunction  or  particle."     Sometimes  the 
reasons  given  by  students  for  using  this  or  that  particle 
have   reminded   me  of  Topsy's  explanation  that  **  she 
must  'fess  something  and  could  n't  think  of  anything  else 
to  'fess."  ^    I  should  much  prefer  to  put  it  in  this  way : 
"  Never  use  a  particle  unless  you  can  give  a  reason  why 
you  choose  the  particular  one  employed."     This  joining 
of  clauses  is  of  the  highest  importance.     StyHstic  effect 
is  largely  dependent  upon  it. 

The  best  way  to  study  the  principles  involved  is  by 
careful  study  of  a  Greek  paragraph  or  two.  Let  us 
take  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  I.  i,  4,  5  as  an  Example  of 
illustration.  'O  S'  «?  cnrr^kQe  KivBvv€V(Ta<i  koX  Articulation. 
aTLfjLaa-Oei^,  ^ovXeverai  k.  t.  X.  The  first  question  will 
naturally  be  why  cJ?  aTrrjXOe  and  not  the  participle 
aire\6(i)v}  And  this  question  will  often  arise  in  correct- 
ing exercises.  No  fixed  grammatical  rule  can  be  given. 
The  meaning  would,  in  most  cases,  be  nearly  the  same. 
The  reason  lies  sometimes  in  the  general  effect  on  the 
sound  of  the  sentence.    Here,  for  instance,  it  can  readily 


1  Since  writing  this  sentence,  I  have  received  the  following  answer  to 
a  question,  in  an  examination  paper,  concerning  the  use  of  t€.  "t€  is  a 
word  thrown  broadcast  throughout  the  Greek  writing  and  language.  It 
means  nothing  to  us,  but  a  great  deal  to  the  Greeks.  Greek  would  not 
be  Greek  to  a  Greek  without  it." 


302  GREEK  COMPOSITION 

be  seen  that  three  participles  one  after  the  other  would 
not  be  euphonious,  nor  would  the  relation  of  the  ideas 
expressed  by  the  different  participles  be  easily  grasped. 
More  weight  is  often  given  to  a  thought  expressed  by  a 
clause  with  a  finite  verb.  Compare  Anab.  I.  i,  7:  'O 
hk  J^vpo^  vTToXafiwv  T0U9  (ftevyovTWi  crvWe^a^i  (TTpdrevjjLa 
iirciXLopKet  MiXrjrov.  Here  the  description  carries  us 
rapidly  forward  to  the  besieging  of  Miletus.  Dakyn's 
translation,  "  Cyrus,  on  his  side,  welcomed  these  fugi- 
tives, and  having  collected  an  army  laid  siege  to  Miletus," 
does  not  move  on  to  the  main  point  with  equal  swiftness. 
Compare  further  Aitab.  I.  2,  4  with  I.  2,  5.  To  enable 
the  student  to  become  familiar  with  both  forms  of  ex- 
pression, it  is  well  to  have  him  write  both  a  participial 
clause  and  its  equivalent  dependent  clause  with  a  con- 
junction, for  each  English  dependent  clause.  Then  help 
him  to  select  the  one  which  under  the  circumstances 
seems  the  better  in  each  case.  The  next  point  in  this 
Greek  and  sentence  is  the  question  why  the  order  should 
English  be   o   S*  009   airrfkOe^    and   not  cJ?   S'  airrjkde. 

This  difference  in  idiom  between  the  English 
and  the  Greek  is  fundamental,  and,  if  not  already  learned, 
should  be  copiously  illustrated  and  explained.  Further 
points  for  consideration  in  connection  with  this  clause 
are:  Is  cJ?  the  most  common  conjunction?  Ask  the 
student  to  note  eTret  used  for  this  purpose.  Is  the 
aorist  different  from  the  imperfect?  Keep  a  memoran- 
dum of  the  uses  of  each.  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of 
«9?  Regarding  this  last  question  on  the  uses  of  <w9,  the 
practice  of  Xenophon  in  the  A7iabasis,  if  one  takes  Joost's 
figures,  is  not  to  use  it  extensively  in  temporal  clauses. 
The  verbs  denoting  sense  perception  make  up  two 
thirds  of  all  occurrences.  The  phrase  0)9  dhov  (^elhev) 
forms  over  one  third.  So,  I  should  say,  it  were  better 
not  to  introduce  this  use  of  &)9  in  practice.     It  is  better 


GREEK  COMPOSITION 


303 


to  give  as  few  equivalents  for  an  English  expression  or 
word  as  may  be  enough  to  get  along  with.      The  next 
clause  with  otto)?  should  be   compared   with   the   first 
sentence  of  §  6,  where  otto)?  appears  as  a  final  particle. 
The  translation  how  that  will  answer  for  both  clauses. 
aXkd.     Point  out  difference   in  use   between  this  word 
and    Se,    and    give    sentences   to    illustrate    these   uses. 
\xlv  Brj.     This  /JL€v  has  no  Be  corresponding  to  it,  and  the 
fact  should  be  noted.     I.  i,  5.     oarcfi  B'  dcfyt/cvolro,  who- 
ever.   Compare  this  word  with  the  conditional  d  Be  tl  of 
I.  5,  I.    Make  several  sentences  in  English  with  whoever, 
whatever  clauses,  and  let  each  be  turned   into  Greek  in 
two  ways,  with  a  relative   and  with  eX  ri?  phrase,     ware 
with  the  infinitive.     It  may  be  as  well,  in  choosing  be- 
tween the  infinitive  and  the  indicative  construction  with 
wGTe,  to  allow  the  pupil  to  follow  the  English  set   for 
him.     If  the  infinitive  is  used  in  the  English  sentence,  so 
as  to,  then  the  infinitive  in  Greek :  if  in  English  so  that, 
then  the  indicative  in  Greek.    The  line  between  the  two 
constructions  is  a  difficult  one  to  draw,  and  I  do  not 
think  it  the  best  way  of  employing  a  pupil's  time  at  this 
stage  of  his  progress  to  attempt  to  explain  such  delicate 
questions,  even  if  a  satisfactory  statement  were  possible. 
Closely  connected  with  the  use  of  conjunctions  and 
particles  is  the  wide  extension  of  the  participle  construc- 
tion in  Greek  as  compared  with  English.     I  xheuseof 
find  often  that  fairly  good   students  are  not  Participles 
familiar  with  this  use  in  Greek.     In  setting        ^^  ' 
sentences  for  translation,  the  teacher   should   call   for 
both  ways  of  phrasing  subordinate  clauses,   as    above 
suggested ;    and    for   some    sentences,    too,   where    the 
genitive  will  be  needed  as  well  as  the  nominative.     In 
the  sentence  under  consideration  <^ikovGa  (causal)  and 
BiariOeL^  (temporal)  are  good  examples  of  the  **  imperfect 
participle." 


304  GREEK  COMPOSITION 

Especially  should  it  be  made  clear  that  a  subordinate 
clause  with  the  pluperfect  in  English  should  be  rendered 
by  the  aorist  participle.  Important  also  are  the  uses 
corresponding  to  English  the  men  who  are  doingy  sayings 
etc.y  or  those  who  do,  say,  etc.     Greek  ol  iroiovvTe^ . 

The  uses  of  the  various  pronouns  are  frequently  not 

well  learned.    eKelvo^  and  aurd?,  ovto^  and  ohe  are  too 

__      often  confounded.     The  rules  for  their  use 
Demonstra- 
tive Pro-      are   perfectly  simple,   and  it  must   be   from 

noims.  failure   to    notice   their   uses   in   reading  or 

from  lack  of  practice  that  the  confusion  arises.     The 

habit  of  translating  into  English  by  pronouns  strongly 

emphasized  wherever  they  are  used  as  the  equivalents 

of  the   Greek  demonstratives,  will  prove  a  great  help. 

The  English  sentences  given  for  translation  into  Greek 

should  be  made  to  show  this,  whether  they  are  given  to 

the  class  in  writing  or  orally.     Anabasis,  I.  1,4,  and  5, 

furnish  two  or  three  good   illustrations.     Do   not  allow 

avTov  to  be  given  emphasis   in  any  English  translation, 

or  to  be  put  in  the  emphatic  place,  first  in  its  clause,  in 

Greek.      The  form  ravra  proves  a  stumbling-block  in 

the  way  of  good  translation  in  many  cases.     We  do  not 

say  in  English  these  things,  or  such  things,  with   any 

frequency.     And  yet  ravra  and  roiavra  are  exceedingly 

common  in   Greek,     ravra  means  this  over  and  over 

again.     Or  we  may,  in  cases  where  ravra  is  the  object 

of  a  verb,  put  the  special  meaning  of  the  verb  into  the 

form  of  a  noun,  and  then  translate  the  verb  by  such  a 

general  word   as  made,  did,  etc.      E.  g.  ravra  elirev,  he 

said  this,  or  he  made  this  statemeitt  (^statements'. 

One  other  group  of  pronominal  words  needs  atten- 
tion —  the  correlatives.  I  have  spoken  of  them  above 
(page  259). 

An  exercise  of  great  value  consists  in  making  a  sen- 
tence for  translation  that  contains  one  word  in  a  variety 


GREEK  COMPOSITION  305 

of  meanings  calling  for  a  number  of  different  words  in 
Greek.  For  example,  English  that  may  be  chosen,  and 
a  sentence  like  this  given  :  *'  Xenophon  tells  us  yarious 
in  the  Anabasis  that  Cyrus  collected  an  army  Devices  for 
that  he  might  march  against  his  brother.  He  ^*<^^*^®- 
did  this  so  secretly  that  his  brother  did  not  perceive 
///rt/plot."  Or  to  illustrate  the  word  ask:  "  Cyrus  asks 
Clearchus  to  ask  the  soldiers  why  they  ask  for  more 
pay."  Other  English  words  of  common  occurrence,  and 
which  may  be  profitably  used  for  such  work  are  these : 
To,  as  a  preposition  in  various  senses,  as  an  indication 
of  a  purpose  clause,  before  an  infinitive.  Then,  which 
must  be  distinguished  carefully  when  emphatic  and 
temporal  —  in  that  case  corresponding  to  rore,  and  when 
inferential  or  transitional,  when  it  is  to  be  translated  by 
ovv.  Now,  to  be  treated  in  a  similar  way.  Would, 
when  used  where  Greek  optative  is  required  or  allowed, 
has  two  distinct  values  in  Greek.  It  is  either  condi- 
tional, or  it  represents  a  will  oi  direct  discourse.  These 
two  uses,  I  have  found,  are  very  often  confused  in  the 
student's  mind,  and  consequently  in  his  composition. 
Another  way  would  be  to  give  a  number  of  English 
words  in  a  sentence,  all  of  which  are  to  be  rendered  by 
the  same  word  in  Greek.  The  prepositions  will  furnish 
examples  here.  The  various  uses  of  one  Greek  word 
may  be  grouped  together  and  illustrated  in  one  exer- 
cise. The  various  ways  of  expressing  one  idea  will 
prove  a  good  theme  for  practice  at  one  time.  Take  a 
sentence,  for  instance,  which  contains  a  clause  of  pur- 
pose, and  let  the  students  endeavour  to  express  the  pur- 
pose clause  in  as  many  ways  as  possible.  The  same 
plan  may  be  followed  for  the  expression  of  cause,  of 
time,  and  so  on.  Other  phrases  often  mistranslated  are 
he  must  do,  he  had  to  do,  he  ought  to  do.  Correct  trans- 
lation from  the  Greek  in  the  first  place,  is  the  best  help 


306  GREEK  COMPOSITION 

to  right  use  in  composition.  If  a  student  is  allowed  to 
translate  hd  with  the  infinitive  by  it  is  necessary  for,  he 
is  pretty  sure  to  use  a  dative  in  Greek  when  told  to 
express  a  thought  by  hel. 

The  order  of  words  in  writing  is  always  puzzling  to  a 
beginner.     The   Greek  order   is   quite   free,   and   often 

Order  of      corresponds  to  the  English  order  in  the  same 

Woms.  sentence.  The  student  should  be  cautioned 
against  putting  the  verb  at  the  end  of  its  clause  in  all 
cases,  against  putting  an  unemphatic  word  first  in  the 
sentence,  and  against  misplacing  the  particles  used. 
In  particular,  av  should  not  be  put  first  in  its  clause.^ 
The  proper  position  of  attributive  and  of  predicate 
words  should  be  strictly  noted  and  followed.  For  the 
rest,  the  best  advice  is  to  follow  models  to  be  found  in 
the  Greek  text.  Make  the  pupil  feel  that  he  must  be 
ready  to  give  a  reason  for  the  order  in  which  he  places 
his  words,  as  well  as  for  the  choice  of  the  words  them- 
selves. The  really  dangerous  attitude  toward  the  matter 
is  one  which  assumes  that  it  does  not  make  any  difference 
how  it  is  done.  If  a  reason  cannot  be  found  for  a  par- 
ticular arrangement,  then  it  is  best  to  admit  the  fact 
plainly,  but  only  after  a  reason  has  been  diligently 
sought  for. 

In  this  review  of  some  of  the  problems  presented  by 

this  part  of  the  teaching  of  Greek,  I  have  not  attempted 

to  be  exhaustive,  or  to  do  more  than  suggest 
TeacMngof  .  .•  ^   •        i    r     4-  a    A-at    1 

Composition    ways  of  meetmg  certain  detects  and  airncui- 

meansHard    ^[q^  which  I  have  found  to  be  common.     I 

wish  to   add,    however,   my  firm   conviction 

that  no  lasting  results  can  be  secured  without  constant 

and  hard  labour  by  the  teacher  in  correcting  the  exercises 

1  I  should  not  think  it  necessary  to  emphasize  this,  had  I  not  found 
&p  so  misplaced  in  an  illustrative  sentence  in  a  book  on  composition  which 
is  widely  used. 


GREEK  COMPOSITION  ^q^j 

written  by  the  student.  This  should  be  done  for  every 
exercise  given  out  and  for  each  individual  paper. 
There  is  no  efficient  substitute  for  this  work.  Allowing 
the  students  to  correct  their  own  exercises  from  a  model 
sentence  or  sentences  written  on  the  blackboard,  will  not 
answer  at  all.  The  mistakes  made  are  so  varied  that 
they  demand  individual  treatment.  In  a  class  of  any 
considerable  size,  I  think  it  well,  after  .each  paper  has 
been  corrected  and  handed  back  to  its  writer,  to  take  up 
the  essential  points  involved  in  the  lesspn,  and  treat 
them  at  length  with  blackboard  illustration.  This  gives 
an  opportunity  to  take  up  and  consider  the  misconcep- 
tions which  have  been  discovered  through  the  mistakes 
made,  and  allows  of  individual  questions  on  any  matters 
connected  with  the  exercise.  The  information  which 
the  teacher  gains  in  this  way  is  of  great  aid  in  choosing 
the  points  to  be  emphasized  in  the  following  lessons. 
As  a  valuable  aid  in  this  work  of  correction,  the  stu- 
dents should  be  compelled  to  write  all  of  their  exercises 
upon  paper  specially  prepared  .for  this  purpose,  and 
put  up  in  padded  form,  with  a  code  of  abbreviations  of 
the  highest  value.  It  is  called  the  Greek  Composition 
Tablet,  was  devised  by  Professor  B.  L.  D'Ooge,  and  is 
published  by  Messrs.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 


CHAPTER  VI 

GEOGRAPHY  AND   HISTORY 

REFERENCES. 

Holm,  A.  History  of  Greece,  4  vols.  New  York,  1896-1898.  The 
best  general  history  of  Greece  which  takes  account  of  recent  investiga- 
tions and  explorations. 

Oman,  C.  "W.  C.  A  History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  London  and  New  York,  Longmans, 
1891. 

Botsford,  G.  W.  A  History  of  Greece  for  High  Schools  and  Acade- 
mies. New  York,  Macmillan,  1899.  A  book  of  the  highest  value  to 
every  teacher  of  Greek  history.  It  gives  much  space  to  the  social  and 
literary  development  of  the  people.  Contains  also  good  lists  of  selected 
books  of  value  to  teachers  in  this  field. 

Cox,  G.  W.     Lives  of  Gre6k  Statesmen,  2  vols.     New  York,  1886. 

Abbott,  E.    Pericles  and  the  Golden  Age  of  Athens.    New  York,  1891. 

■Wheeler,  B.  I.  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Merging  of  East  and 
West  in  Universal  History.     New  York,  1900. 

Gardner,  Percy.  New  Chapters  in  Greek  History,  Historical  results 
of  recent  excavations  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.     London,  1892. 

Harrison  and  Verrall.  Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens. 
London,  1890.  A  translation  of  the  portion  of  Pausanias  which  is 
devoted  to  Athens,  with  a  full  commentary,  many  figures  and  plans.  A 
very  valuable  work. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Survey  of  Greek  Civilization.    Meadville,  Pa.,  1896. 

Jebb,  R.  C.     A  Primer  of  Greek  Literature.     New  York,  1887. 

Gilbert,  G.  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  Antiquities.  London, 
1895. 

Greenidge,  A.  H.  J.  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  History. 
London,  1896. 

For  the  best  works  on  Ancient  Geography,  see  page  199.  The  works 
just  mentioned  are  but  a  few  out  of  a  vast  number  which  could  be  given. 
Others  may  serve  as  well.  I  feel  sure  that  these  will  not  prove 
disappointing. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 


309 


Schools  differ  considerably  in  their  ways  of  treat- 
ing the  teaching  of  Greek  history.  In  some  it  is  made 
a  part  of  the  duties  of  the  teacher  of  Greek;  gisto-ya 
in  others  it  is  treated  as  a  portion  of  history  proper  Part  of 
in  general,  and  its  teaching  is  assigned  to  the  ^^^^^'^°^^- 
department  of  history.  In  their  valuable  report  to  the 
American  Historical  Association  the  committee  (of  that 
association)  of  seven  criticise  unfavorably  the  first  of 
these  two  ways  of  teaching  Greek  history,  and  enter  a 
strong  plea  for  a  change  everywhere  to  the  second 
method  of  deahng  with  this  subject.  They  say:  *' In 
some  schools  the  history  [of  Greece  and  Rome]  remains 
a  subordinate  subject,  coming  once  or  twice  a  week,  and 
even  then  it  is  often  in  the  hands  of  a  classical  instructor 
who  is  more  interested  in  linguistics  than  in  history,  and 
has  had  no  training  in  historical  method.  .  .  .  The  per- 
spective and  emphasis  within  the  field  covered  have 
been  determined  by  literary  and  linguistic  rather  than 
by  historical  considerations,  with  the  result  that  the  chief 
attention  is  devoted  to  the  periods  when  great  writers 
lived  and  wrote.  Too  much  time,  for  example,  is  com- 
monly given  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  while  the  Helle- 
nistic period  is  neglected."  All  this  is  undoubtedly  true. 
The  proper  remedy  is,  I  believe,  not  to  transfer  the  in- 
struction in  Greek  history  to  another  department  of 
instruction,  but  to  insist  that  the  teacher  of  Greek  shall 
have  had  some  adequate  training  in  historical  method  as 
an  essential  part  of  the  preparation  for  his  work.  The 
teacher  of  Greek  must  be  familiar  with  the  field  of  Greek 
literature,  and  he  must  have  studied  some,  at  least,  of 
the  masterpieces  of  that  literature.  In  this  way  he  has 
a  stronger  grasp  of  the  great  factors  of  Greek  history 
—  the  life  and  thought  of  the  people  —  than  the  man 
trained  in  historical  method  but  lacking  in  this  first-hand 
knowledge    of   Greek   can    possibly   have.      I    do    not 


3IO  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

think  that  a  teacher  unfamiliar  with  Homer  could  give 
anything  like  as  good  an  impression  of  what  the 
"  Mycenaean  civilization "  means  in  Greek  history  as 
one  to  whom  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  had  made  Homeric 
hfe  a  real  and  living  thing.  A  knowledge  of  the  drama 
of  ^schylus  and  of  the  dramatic  narrative  of  He- 
rodotus is  essential  to  a  clear  view  of  the  conflict  between 
Greek  and  Persian.  The  verdict  of  modern  historians 
upon  the  issues  involved  in  the  struggle  of  Athens  and 
Macedon  for  the  leadership  among  Greek  states  robs 
Demosthenes'  name  of  much  of  the  glory  so  long  attached 
to  it.  I  doubt,  however,  if  a  teacher  who  had  not  studied 
the  speeches  of  Demosthenes  could  appreciate  the  atti- 
tude of  the  orator  or  the  power  he  wielded  over  his 
fellow-citizens.  The  failure  to  realize  this  power  and  its 
results  means  failure  to  grasp  the  most  important  fact  in 
the  whole  struggle. 

I  urge,  then,  that  the  teacher  of  Greek  should  be  the 
teacher  of  the  history  of  the  Greeks,  as  well  as  the 
teacher  of  their  language  and  their  literature,  and  that  he 
should  be  trained  for  this  work  as  carefully  as  he  is 
trained  for  work  in  teaching  Greek  grammar. 

The  history  to  be  studied  is  the  history  of  the  activities 
of  various  Greek  peoples  and  of  different  Greek  states,  — 
Importance    ^  history  of  the  Greeks^  not  of  Greece.   There- 
of Correct     fore    it    is    of  the    highest   importance   that 
^*    '      the  student  should  get  a  correct  idea  of  the 
geography  of  the  countries  inhabited  by  these  different 
peoples.     The  student's  first  map  of  the   Greek  world 
should  be   broad  enough  to  include  all  the  lands  which 
were  the  seat  of  Greek  activity  in  history  and  in  which 
their  civilization  was  developed.     This  map  should  in- 
clude not  Greece  alone  —  as  is  too  often  the  case  —  but 
all  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  both  sides  of  the 
-^gean,   the    Bosphorus,   and   the  western  end    of  the 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  311 

Euxine,  No  map  of  Greece  can  be  satisfactory  which 
does  not  include  the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily  and  south- 
ern Italy,  nor  one  which  fails  to  show  Miletus,  Smyrna, 
Rhodes,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria.  The  excellent  map 
of  the  Greek  world  reproduced  here  is  taken  from  Bots- 
ford's  History  of  Greece,  by  the  kind  permission  of  the 
publishers  of  that  volume. 

On  this  map  notice  may  be  taken  of  these  features, 
and  the  attention  of  the  students  called  to  them.  First, 
although  a  considerable  part  of  Asia  is  Features  to  be 
shown,  that  part  faces  westward.  The  Greek  emphasized. 
settlements  and  cities  on  the  ^gean  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  are  in  effect  a  part  of  Europe.  Their  history  is 
a  part  of  the  history  of  the  West,  not  of  the  Orient. 
Further,  the  various  portions  of  the  Greek  world 
are  connected  more  closely  by  water  than  by  land. 
Some  expressions  in  the  language  itself  mark  the  coast 
as  the  starting-point  for  journeys  by  land  or  by  sea. 
E.  g.  avapalvav,  "  to  go  up  from  the  coast  to  the 
interior;"  avdyeaOaL,  "to  put  out  to  sea;"  and  Kara- 
^aivetv  and  Kardyea-Oat  with  meanings  just  the  opposite 
of  these.  Communication  was  in  ancient  times,  and  still 
is,  easier  by  water  routes  than  by  land.  The  prevailing 
winds  were  during  the  season  of  navigation  fairly  regular 
and  even,  thus  favouring  the  development  of  a  commerce 
which  was  vital  to  the  existence  of  a  people  much  of 
whose  land  was  not  specially  rich.  "  From  three  sides 
the  sea  penetrates  into  all  parts  of  Hellas ;  and  while  it 
accustoms  men's  eyes  to  greater  acuteness  and  their 
minds  to  higher  enterprise,  it  never  ceases  to  excite 
their  fancy  for  the  sea,  which,  in  regions  where  no  ice 
binds  it  during  the  whole  course  of  the  year,  effects  an 
incomparably  closer  union  between  the  lands  than  is  the 
case  with  the  inhospitable  inland  seas  of  the  North.  If 
it  is  easily  agitated,  it  is  also  easily  calmed   again ;   its 


312 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 


dangers  are  diminished  by  the  multitude  of  safe  bays  for 
anchorage,  which  the  mariner  may  speedily  reach  at  the 
approach  of  foul  weather.  The  winds  are  legislators  of 
the  weather ;  but  even  they  in  these  latitudes  submit  to 
certain  rules,  and  only  rarely  rise  to  the  vehemence  of 
desolating  hurricanes.  Never,  except  in  the  short  win- 
ter season,  is  there  any  uncertain  irregularity  in  wind 
and  weather ;  the  commencement  of  the  fair  season  — 
the  safe  months,  as  the  ancients  called  it  —  brings  with 
it  an  immutable  law  followed  by  the  winds  in  the  entire 
Archipelago  :  every  morning  the  north  wind  arises  from 
the  coasts  of  Thrace,  and  passes  over  the  whole  island- 
sea.  .  .  .  This  wind  subsides  at  sunset.  Then  the  sea 
becomes  smooth,  and  air  and  water  tranquil,  till  almost 
imperceptibly  a  sHght  contrary  wind  arises,  a  breeze 
from  the  south."  ^ 

Great  confusion  arises  often  in  the  minds  of  students 

from  the  different  scales  on  which  maps  are  made.   Most 

maps  of  Greece  are  drawn  on  a  rather  large 

siS^*  ^^  scale.      Unless  other  maps  which  contain  a 

Towns  and     larp-er  number  of  countries  be  used  for  the 

Countries.  ^  •  ^i.        •  r  ^i, 

purposes  of  comparison,  the  size  of  the  va- 
rious Greek  states  is  apt  to  be  much  exaggerated.  For 
example,  Sicily  usually  appears  on  a  map  containing 
Italy,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  so  seems  to  be  much 
smaller  than  the  Peloponnese,  although  the  latter  is  but 
about  four  fifths  its  size.  Again,  the  importance  of 
Athens  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  world  makes  the 
mistake  of  overestimating  its  size  and  the  size  of  Attica 
a  not  uncommon  one.  Attica  contains  about  nine  hun- 
dred and  seventy  square  miles,  which  is  almost  exactly 
the  size  of  Warren  County  in  New  York  State.  The 
State  of  Rhode  Island  has  an  area  of  twelve  hundred 
and   forty-seven  square  miles.     The  city  of  Athens  was 

1  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  English  translation,  vol.  i.  pp.  21  f. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 


313 


not  a  large  one.  It  contained  about  two  and  one 
quarter  square  miles  of  land,  or  just  about  the  area 
of  Chelsea,  Massachusetts.  Every  teacher  can  find 
opportunities  for  illustrations  of  this  kind,  and  thus 
help  his  students  to  get  a  clearer  idea  of  what  they  are 
studying. 

Special  maps  and  plans  of  Athens  should  be  available, 
and,  if  possible,  a  plaster  model  of  the  Acropolis. 
Special  maps  for  the  various  battlefields  are  piansof 
to  be  found  in  many  of  the  histories  in  use.  ■^t*'^^- 
They  ought  to  be  supplemented  by  photographs  of  such 
places,  if  these  can  be  obtained.  One  or  two  views  of 
the  bay  of  Salamis  or  of  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  are 
worth  pages  of  description.  In  the  rush  to  get  at  the 
facts,  usually  emphasized  as  the  all-essential  points, 
descriptions  are  apt  to  be  read  hurriedly,  if  at  all ;  or,  if 
studied,  to  leave  an  impression  of  words  rather  than  a 
real  picture  of  the  scene  described.  Almost  anything  is 
better  than  a  mechanical  repetition  of  statements  from  a 
textbook.  In  teaching  the  special  geography  of  a 
locality  or  the  topography  of  a  town,  it  is  always  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  be  able  to  use  some  illustrations 
from  the  localities  familiar  to  the  students.  The  teacher 
who  has  his  eyes  open,  and  who  is  watching  for  such 
opportunities  for  illustration,  will  be  pretty  sure  to  find 
them,  and  will  surely  be  pleased,  perhaps  surprised,  at 
the  results  obtained  by  their  aid. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  within  the  limits  of  the 
high  school  course  to  give  much  more  than  an  outline 
of  Greek  history.  But  to  do  this  well,  and  in  how  much 
such  a  way  that  the  outline  shall  contain  what  can  be  done. 
is  most  important,  most  vital,  most  characteristic  in  the 
life  of  the  people,  requires  careful  training  and  prepara- 
tion. It  demands  that  the  teacher  have  the  necessary 
training  in  historical  method,  and  that  he  possess  such 


314 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 


knowledge  as  will  enable  him  to  see  the  field  in  its 
proper  relations  to  other  portions  of  history  and  in 
the  right  perspective.  The  teacher  should  have  the 
qualifications  for  this  branch  of  his  work  which  are  de- 
manded by  the  committee  of  the  American  Historical 
Association.  He  will  then  be  able  to  take  a  careful 
survey  of  the  entire  field,  and  to  arrange  his  plan  for 
outlining  and  subdividing  the  work.  It  is  of  primary 
importance  that  the  teacher  shall  have  thought  out  his 
plan  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  and  shall  have 
settled  in  his  own  mind  just  what  periods  and  just  what 
events  he  intends  to  dwell  upon.  If,  as  is  commonly 
the  case,  a  textbook  be  used,  he  must  understand  the 
author's  plan  thoroughly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
prefers  to  teach  by  dictating  the  heads  of  subjects  to 
•his  class,  who  are  to  fill  in  the  outline  thus  given  by 
reading  in  works  assigned  them,  he  must  be  convinced 
of  the  superior  value  of  his  own  arrangement.  Clear- 
ness of  view  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  the  first  con- 
dition of  understanding  on  the  part  of  the  student. 

The  following  division  seems  to  me  a  convenient  one, 
and  one  which  gives  opportunity  for  enforcing  the  main 
Division  into  f^cts  of  Greek  history  :  I.  Mycenaean.  This 
Periods.  includes  the  earliest  portion  of  Greek  history. 
It  is  impossible  to  fix  dates  for  its  beginning  or  its  close. 
It  is  made  to  include  all  the  time  from  the  first  traces  of 
human  activity  in  the  lands  afterwards  inhabited  by 
Greek  peoples  down  to  about  the  year  looo  B.  c.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  is  limited  to  the  period  when  Mycenae  was 
the  great  state  in  the  Greek  world.  To  this  may  be 
given,  tentatively,  the  limits  1 500-1000  B.  C.  Our  sources 
of  knowledge  of  this  period  of  the  history  of  the  Greeks 
are  of  two  kinds :  First,  the  statements  in  the  literature 
and  especially  in  the  Homeric  poems.  For  instance, 
in   the   second    book  of  the  Iliad  the  poet   says    that 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  315 

Agamemnon  received  the  sceptre  of  his  family  as  a 
badge  of  authority  to  rule  over  all  Argos  and  many 
islands. 

The  second  source  of  knowledge  concerning  this 
period  is  much  larger  in  amount,  much  more  direct  in 
its  character,  and  consequently  much  more  important. 
It  consists  in  the  discoveries  made  by  archaeological 
research  and  excavations.  These  have  really  revealed 
to  us  a  new  and  hitherto  unknown  civilization.  In  the 
first  rank  stand  the  explorations  of  Schliemann  and  his 
successors  in  Argos  and  the  Troad.  The  interest  of  the 
high  school  student  who  is  reading  Homer  will  surely 
be  awakened  for  this  part  of  Greek  history.  Simple 
problems  in  the  relations  of  the  archaeological  remains 
to  the  descriptions  of  the  poet  may  profitably  be  as- 
signed for  solution  by  a  class.  The  attempt  at  com- 
parison will  produce  a  more  careful  study  of  the  Greek 
text  and  of  the  objects  under  discussion.  Furthermore, 
this  kind  of  illustrative  material  is  being  discovered 
constantly;  and  the  questions  settled  or  raised  by  each 
n^yfj  find  are  so  broadly  interesting  that  they  appeal  to 
a  wide  circle  of  readers,  and  the  accounts  of  such  dis- 
coveries are  published  in  journals  of  a  general  character. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  was  supplied  by  the  accounts 
in  the  New  York  Independent  iox  May  31  and  June  7, 
and  by  Mr.  Louis  Dyer  in  The  Nation  of  August  3, 
1900,  of  the  discoveries  made  by  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Evans  in 
Crete.  His  explorations  there,  in  addition  to  much 
other  valuable  knowledge,  have  thrown  new  light  upon 
the  question  of  writing  in  Mycenaean  times  and  upon  the 
early  history  of  the  alphabet.  Material  of  this  kind  is 
more  available  for  the  use  of  the  high  school  student 
than  that  which  appears  in  archaeological  or  philologi- 
cal journals  merely.  Its  use  gives  a  freshness  to  the 
interest  in  this  earliest  period  of  Greek  history,  a  period 


3i6 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 


with  which  the  student  becomes  acquainted  through  his 
Homer. 

The  early  history  of  the  historic  states,  in  particular 

Athens  and  Sparta,  and  the  colonizing  activity  of  the 

Athens  and     Greeks  form  the  main  features  of  the  political 

Sparta.  history  of  the  next  period,  which   may  be 

limited  by  the  year  500  B.  C.  and  the  beginnings  of  the 

wars  with  foreign  states. 

The  history  of  this  period  gives  ample  illustration  of 
the  breaking  down  of  the  old  inherited  political  system, 
and  of  the  development  in  various  ways  towards  newer 
forms  of  organization.  These  changes  should  be  studied, 
and  their  causes  and  their  results  should  be  under- 
stood. 

This  is  particularly  important  in  the  case  of  Sparta 
and  of  Athens,  since  these  states  came  to  represent  types 
of  government,  and  were  in  the  next  period  of  Greek 
history  the  leaders  in  the  Greek  world.  Two  other 
features  of  the  history  of  this  period  are  of  much  impor- 
tance. First,  the  expansion  and  extension  of  Greek 
commerce  over  the  lands  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
placing  of  traders'  posts,  and  sometimes,  a  Httle  later,  a 
regular  colony  from  the  mother  city  (ftT^rpoTroXi?)  at  the 
points  most  desirable  for  trade,  was  the  starting-point 
for  some  of  the  most  flourishing  of  Greek  cities.  It  also 
gave  a  distinctively  Greek  character  to  the  life  and  the 
civilization  of  Sicily  and  lower  Italy,  among  other  coun- 
tries, which  they  never  lost  in  later  times  nor  under  the 
greatest  political  changes.  The  second  point  is  the 
creative  activity  of  the  Greek  mind,  particularly  in 
poetry  and  in  philosophy.  Some  of  the  finest  of  Greek 
lyrics  were  written  in  the  sixth  century.  The  same  cen- 
tury saw  the  beginnings  of  that  philosophical  activity 
which  made  Greek  thought  and  Greek  thinkers  in  this 
field  famous  for  all  time.     If  Herodotus  is  read  in  the 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  317 

school  course,  many  of  his  most  charming  stories  ^  may 
well  be  chosen  for  reading  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  this  period  of  Greek  history. 

The  third  period  may  be  limited  by  the  years  500  and 
431  B.  C.     In  the  years  between  these  dates  the  Greeks 
estabhshed  themselves  firmly  against  the  at-     East  and 
tacks  of  non-Greek  peoples  in  both  the  East,     west, 
where  the    Persians   were  the  leaders,   and   the   West, 
where  the  attack  came  from  the  Carthaginians. 

The  general  term  barbarians  was  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  all  other  peoples,  but  the  word  should  be 
avoided  because  it  carries  with  it,  as  now  used  by  us, 
wrong  impressions.  The  better  way  to  look  at  this 
great  struggle  for  supremacy  in  the  lands  of  the  Medi- 
terranean is  as  a  struggle  between  East  and  West,  and 
the  form  of  civilization  represented  by  each  ;  a  struggle 
which  began  long  before  this  time,  and  which  has  been 
repeated  in  various  forms  many  times  since  then,  even 
to  the  present  day.  The  struggle  was  successfully 
waged  by  the  Greeks.  They  placed  succeeding  genera- 
tions under  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  them,  and  in  the  first 
rank  to  Athens. 

Athens  made  the  greatest  sacrifices  in  these  wars,  and 
Athens  reaped  the  greatest  benefits  from  their  success- 
ful conclusion.  The  extension  of  the  power  of  Athens 
during  the  years  following  the  battles  of  Salamis  and 
of  Plataia  is  the  second  great  political  feature  of  these 
seventy  years.  There  is  no  danger  that  too  little  atten- 
tion will  be  paid  to  the  various  achievements  of  the  "■  Per- 
iclean  Age."  In  fact,  the  historians  complain  that  too 
much  time  is  spent  on  this  part  of  Greek  history.  But 
it  is  in  this  time  that  Athens  made  some  of  her  noblest 
and  richest  contributions  to  the  things  of  the  spirit. 

1  E.  g.,  the  story  of  Croesus  and  Solon,  of  Cleobis  and  Bito,  of  Arion, 
of  Agariste. 


3i8  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

A  fourth  period  may  be  made  to  include  the  years  of 
war  between  the  various  Greek  states  from  43 1  B.  c,  the 
formal  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  to 
338  B.  C,  the  battle  of  Chaeronea.  This,  polit- 
ically considered,  is  a  period  of  confusion.  The  earlier 
part  of  it  is  occupied  by  the  contest  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  with  the  allies  of  each.  The  success  of 
Sparta  is  not  of  long  standing  before  Thebes  becomes  the 
chief  city  of  the  eastern  Greek  world,  —  a  place  which 
she  also  is  unable  to  hold.  The  period  closes  with  the 
final  triumph  of  the  Macedonian  power  over  the  disin- 
tegrated states  of  Greece.  In  other  than  the  political 
aspect  the  period  presents  many  facts  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. The  greatest  of  Greek  prose  writers  lived 
during  this  time ;  Greek  art  reached  its  highest  perfection, 
Greek  philosophy  its  most  perfect  form.  The  intel- 
lectual life  becomes  more  and  mare  separated  from  the 
soldier's  and  statesman's  life.  Theories  in  religion,  in 
government,  were  thought  out  and  put  in  many  cases  to 
actual  experiment.  The  time  was  in  many  ways  pecul- 
iarly and  interestingly  "  modern."  A  more  general 
knowledge  of  some  of  the  theories,  especially  in  what 
may  be  somewhat  broadly  termed  "  the  field  of  soci- 
ology," and  of  the  attempts  to  put  them  into  practice, 
might  possibly  prevent  at  the  present  time  the  repetition 
of  the  failures  which  then  followed. 
Alexander  ^^^  ^^'^  period  includes  the  time  of  the 
andHei-  Macedonian  empire  and  the  Hellenistic  king- 
lenism.  ^o^<=,  and  cities,  down  to  the  incorporation 
of  the  last  of  them  into  the  empire  of  Rome  in 
30  B.  c. 

Alexandria  is  the  central  place  in  these  years,  whose 
interest  lies  in  the  growth  and  extension  of  Greek 
thought  over  East  and  West.  In  the  kingdom  of  the 
world     Greece    has    ceased    to    have    power,    in    the 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  319 

realm  of  the  soul  she  has  established  her  right  to  rule 
forever. 

I  do  not  attach  great  importance  to  this  particular 
division  into  periods.  It  may  not  suit  a  single  teacher. 
One  may  prefer  more,  another  fewer  divisions.  I  do 
believe,  as  I  said  above,  that  it  is  of  supreme  importance 
for  the  teacher  to  have  a  clear  notion  of  what  he  is  go- 
ing to  attempt  before  he  begins  the  work.  The  least 
uncertainty  or  confusion  in  the  teacher's  mind  will  be 
multiphed  many  times  in  the  mind  of  his  pupil.  As  to 
details  of  method,  I  shall  offer  but  a  single  suggestion. 
I  believe  strongly  in  the  value  of  a  study  of  biography. 
Wherever  possible  I  should  try  to  introduce  it.  I  am 
not  sure  but  the  story  of  the  Persian  War  would  be  re- 
membered quite  as  well  if  taken  in  connection  with  the 
life  of  Themistocles,  as  in  any  other  way. 

I  feel  quite  sure  that  the  Macedonian  struggle  with 
Athens  can  best  be  understood  if  looked  at  in  connec- 
tion with  the  life  of  Demosthenes.  The  main  thing  — 
let  me  repeat  it  once  more  —  is,  first,  a  conviction  that 
these  actions  and  these  thoughts  of  the  Greeks  have  a 
value  for  us,  that  they  mean  something  to  us  now ;  and 
secondly,  a  clear  notion  of  what  that  value  is  and  what 
that  meaning  is. 

Modern  Greece:  Descriptions  of  Land  and  People. 
Some  knowledge  of  the  country  of  Greece  as  it  is  at  the 
present  time,  and  of  the  people  and  their  life  is  a  valu- 
able help  to  the  teacher  in  describing  and  illustrating 
places  and  events  of  ancient  time.  The  most  desirable 
way  of  getting  this  knowledge  is,  of  course,  by  a  visit  to 
the  country.  But  this  is  not  possible  for  many,  and 
recourse  must  be  had  in  most  cases  to  the  accounts  of 
travellers. 

I  give  here  the  titles  of  some  of  the  works  best  adapted 
to  this  end : 


320  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

Baedeker,  Karl.  Greece.  Handbook  for  Travellers.  Eng- 
lish Edition.  Leipzig,  Karl  Baedeker;  New  York,  Scribner. 
One  of  the  well-known  series  of  guide-books  for  travellers,  and 
the  best  in  English.  It  contains  many  maps  and  plans,  which 
show  both  the  ancient  and  the  modern  conditions,  and  has  also 
a  sketch  of  Greek  history  and  of  Greek  art.  It  is  the  best  book 
for  obtaining  an  accurate  and  systematic  description  of  the  land 
and  the  buildings,  and  its  usefulness  is  not  limited  to  travellers. 

Bent,  J.  T.  The  Cyclades,  or  Life  among  the  Insular  Greeks. 
London,  1885.  One  of  the  most  interesting  descriptions  of  the 
life  of  the  Greek  people  in  the  districts  where  modern  changes 
have  affected  it  the  least. 

Tozer,  H.  F.  The  Islands  of  the  ^gean.  Oxford,  1890. 
Similar  in  theme  to  the  one  last  mentioned. 

Rodd,  R.  The  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece. 
London,  1892.  Interesting  descriptions  of  present-day  folk- 
lore and  folk-song,  with  suggestions  as  to  the  connection  of  some 
of  them  with  the  ancient  customs  and  beliefs. 

Diehl,  C.  Excursions  in  Greece  to  recently  Explored  Sites 
of  Classical  Interest.  London,  1893.  A  popular  account  of 
the  results  of  recent  investigations. 

Barrows,  S.  J.  The  Isles  and  Shrines  of  Greece.  Boston, 
1898.  A  charmingly  written  book  of  travel.  Perhaps  the  best 
general  book  of  the  kind  within  the  last  few  years. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MYTHOLOGY   AND   ART 
REFERENCES. 

A.    On  Mythology. 

Gayley,  C.  M.  The  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature.  Based 
chiefly  on  Bulfinch's  "  Age  of  Fable."  Accompanied  by  an  interpreta- 
tive and  illustrative  commentary.  Boston,  1893.  ^  most  excellent  work, 
particularly  for  its  treatment  of  the  mythological  element  in  English 
literature. 

Bvilfinch,  Thomas.  The  Age  of  Fable.  A  new  revised  and  enlarged 
edition  by  J.  L.  Scott.  Philadelphia,  1898.  Similar  to  the  last-named 
work. 

Baleigh,  K.  A.  Translator  from  Petiscus,  A.  H.  The  Gods  of 
Olympos,  or  Mythology  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  With  a  preface  by 
Jane  E.  Harrison.     London,  1892, 

These  three  are  the  most  convenient  elementary  manuals  in  this  field. 
The  first  excels  in  literary  illustration ;  the  third  in  pictorial  matter,  hav- 
ing many  choice  illustrations  drawn  purely  from  classical  sources.  The 
second  book  has  a  number  of  good  illustrations,  but  they  are  taken  from 
modern  as  well  as  ancient  works  of  art,  and  hence  are  not  so  well  adapted 
to  showing  the   Gree^  conception. 

Smith,  "William,  Editor.  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog- 
raphy and  Mythology.  London,  1880.  A  large  work  in  three  volumes. 
A  great  work  for  its  day,  and  still  useful,  though  on  many  points  addi- 
tional light  has  been  thrown  since  it  was  published. 

Farnell,  L.  R.  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States.  Three  vols.  Oxford, 
1898. 

Dyer,  Louis.     Studies  of  the  Gods  in  Greece.     London,  1891. 

Campbell,  Lewis.     Religion  in  Greek  Literature.     London,  1898. 

These  three  are  valuable  works  of  reference  on  the  archaeological  and 
the  literary  interpretation  and  expression  of  the  Greek  religious  cults. 

B.    On  Art. 

Collignon,  M.  Manual  of  Greek  Archaeology.  Translated  by  J.  H. 
Wright.  New  York,  1886.  An  excellent  brief  work,  covering  the  his- 
tory of  all  forms  of  Greek  Art. 

21 


322 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART 


TarbeU,  F.  B.  History  of  Greek  Art.  Meadville,  Pa.,  1896.  Good 
general  survey  of  the  entire  field. 

Gardner,  E.  A.  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture.  New  York,  1897. 
Two  parts.  May  be  had  separately  or  both  in  one  volume.  This  is 
the  latest  and  best  short  work  on  Greek  sculpture,  and  well  worth  owning. 
It  is  well  illustrated  and  contains  a  selected  bibliography. 

Mitchell,  L.  M.  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture.  New  York,  1883. 
A  large  work  dealing  with  the  entire  field  of  ancient  sculpture.  Some- 
what behind  the  fuller  knowledge  of  the  present  time,  but  an  excellent 
book  for  a  school  library.  There  is  an  atlas  of  illustrations  published  in 
connection  with  it. 

Larger  and  more  expensive  works  are: 

Baumeister,  A.  Denkmaler  des  klassichen  Altertums.  Munich,  1888. 
Three  large  volumes,  splendidly  illustrated.  The  book  of  pictures  edited 
by  the  same  man,  and  mentioned  on  page  198,  is  made  up  of  selections 
from  this  work. 

Furtwangler,  A.  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture.  Translated  by 
E.  Sellers.     London,  1895.     With  atlas  of  plates. 

Parrot  and  Chipiez.  History  of  Art  in  Primitive  Greece  Mycensean 
Art.  Two  vols.  London,  1894.  A  splendid  book,  finely  illustrated. 
Particularly  valuable  in  connection  with  the  study  of  Homer. 

Harrison  and  MacColl.  Greek  Vase  Paintings.  A  selection  of  ex- 
amples with  preface,  introduction,  and  descriptions.  London,  1894.  Mag- 
nificent work,  but  too  expensive  for  the  average  teacher.  A  luxury  for  a 
school  library. 

A  list  of  dealers  in  photographs  is  given  in  the  Appendix  at  the  end 
of  this  volume.  I  wish  to  commend  the  collection  of  the  Messrs.  A.  W. 
Elson  &  Co.  Their  catalogue  descriptive  of  the  history  of  Greek  and 
Roman  art,  with  a  list  of  illustrations  selected  by  Professor  F.  B.  Tar- 
beU, is  a  valuable  help  in  making  purchases  in  this  line. 

Closely  connected  with  Greek  history  is  the  subject 
of  Greek  Mythology.  The  Hne  which  separates  the  two 
mythology  cannot  always  be  drawn  with  certainty,  nor 
and  History,  when  drawn  is  it  sure  to  remain  stationary. 
Recent  historical  investigation  has  accepted  as  true,  and 
hence  characterizes  as  history,  some  stories  which  had 
long  been  considered  idle  tales  of  the  ever-lively  Greek 
fancy.  In  general,  I  believe  that  the  tendency  of  the 
studies  and  discoveries  of  recent  years  has  been  towards 
confirming  ancient  tradition. 

Our   ability  to  prove  the  truth  of  legendary  history 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART  323 

must  always  be  limited  by  the  accident  which  gives  or 
withholds  the  information  on  which  a  judgment  may  be 
based.  But  in  so  far  as  the  effect  of  these  legends 
upon  the  Greeks  themselves  is  concerned,  their  absolute 
truth  or  falsity  is  of  no  importance.  The  Greeks  be- 
lieved them,  and  acted  upon  the  basis  of  this  belief.  It 
is  this  influence  of  their  legends  and  myths  upon  the 
Greeks  which  makes  the  study  of  their  mythology  im- 
portant to  the  understanding  of  the  religion  and  the 
social  organization  of  the  Greek  states. 

Greek  mythology  is  also  of  the  first  importance  for 
the  study  of  Greek  art.  The  two  were  most  intimately 
associated.  Religious  subjects  furnished  the  Mythology 
highest  inspiration  to  their  artists,  whether  and  Art. 
sculptors  or  poets.  In  temples,  the  finest  and  rich- 
est houses  they  could  build,  their  artists  placed  the 
noblest  images  of  their  gods.  The  worship  of  these 
divinities  called  forth  the  best  efforts  of  their  poets  and 
musicians.  Not  merely  the  person  of  a  god  is  repre- 
sented in  the  statues  and  reliefs,  but  some  activity  of  the 
god,  some  one  of  the  legendary  events  in  his  life  and 
dealings  with  his  people. 

And  this  is,  of  course,  the  case  in  representations  of 
groups  of  divinities.  A  good  illustration  of  this  princi- 
ple may  be  seen  in  the  figures  in  the  pediments  of  the 
temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  The  Apollo,  for  instance, 
which  forms  the  central  figure  in  the  group  of  the  west- 
ern pediment  is  a  magnificent  piece  of  work.  Its  full 
meaning,  however,  can  be  understood  only  in  connection 
with  the  help  of  the  surrounding  figures  and  the  story 
thus  represented.  So  far,  then,  as  Greek  mythology 
deals  with  human  beings,  it  is  closely  related  to  Greek 
history,  and  where  it  touches  the  deeds  of  gods  as  well 
as  of  men  it  finds  its  most  perfect  interpretation  in  Greek 
art. 


324  MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART 

These  considerations  concern  primarily  the  under- 
standing and  interpretation  of  Greek  literature  and  art. 
Greek  M  Another  reason  may  be  urged  for  the  study 
thoiogy  in  of  Greek  mythology,  —  one  which  will  appeal 
^raSire.  ^^  ^  larger  number  of  teachers  and  students, 
and  which  may  be  considered  stronger  than 
those  mentioned.  It  is  the  importance  of  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  myths  of  the  Greeks  for  an  adequate  under- 
standing of  English  Hterature.  With  the  possible 
exception  of  our  Bible,  no  literature  has  contributed  so 
largely  to  the  stock  of  illustration,  of  comparison,  and 
of  familiar  reference  in  the  best  English  authors  as  has 
the  Greek.  A  mythological  name  has  in  many  instances 
in  English  been  the  source  of  a  word,  most  frequently  an 
adjective,  whose  origin  in  its  common  use  has  become 
largely  obscured,  or  perhaps  quite  forgotten.  For  ex- 
ample, the  words  tantalize^  vulcanizey  7nariial,  mercurial 
would  seldom,  I  think,  suggest  their  ultimate  derivation. 
In  herculean,  cyclopean,  delphic,  saturni?ze  the  derivation 
has  not  been  so  completely  lost.  Again,  in  figures  and 
comparisons,  and  here  especially  in  poetry,  Greek  my- 
thology furnishes  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  material. 
I  give  as  illustrations  the  following  examples  chosen 
from  one  poem: 

"The  murmur  of  a  happy  Pan?^ 

"  The  pulses  of  a  Titan's  heart." 

"  But  some  wild  Pallas  from  the  brain." 

"  The  reeling  Faun,  the  sensual  feast.'* 

"  Sad  Hesper  o'er  the  buried  sun." 

''  On  thy  Parnassus  set  thy  feet.'* 

"  To  many  a  flute  of  ArcadyT 

Lastly,  Greek  mythology  has  furnished  the  subject 
matter  for  many  beautiful  poems  in  English;  and,  of 
course,  English  translations  from  the  ancient  classics  are 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART  325 

full  of  its  creations.  Granting,  then,  the  desirability  or 
necessity  for  learning  something  of  Greek  mythology, 
how  can  this  be  best  accomplished?  Un-  how  can 
doubtedly  the  simpler  stories  can  be  most  Knowledge 
easily  learned  in  childhood.  Many  chil-  test  be 
dren  will  learn  them  at  home  or  in  their  first  eai^^d? 
reading  lessons.  But  many — J  fear,  an  increasing  num- 
ber —  will  not.  These  will  come  to  the  study  of  their 
Latin  and  Greek  largely  or  completely  ignorant  in  this 
field.  How  shall  they  be  taught?  One  way  is  by  a 
definite  lesson  in  a  book  to  be  learned  and  recited. 
This  plan  is  urged  by  Gayley  in  his  excellent  book, 
already  noticed.  I  cannot  speak  from  experience,  but 
am  not  over-sanguine  as  to  the  retention  in  memory  of 
matters  learned  in  that  way  apart  from  some  association 
or  connection  with  other  work.  The  framework  —  the 
names  and  relations  of  the  greater  gods,  for  instance  — 
ought  to  be  carefully  and  exactly  learned.  I  should 
think  it  advisable  to  leave  much  of  the  details  to  be  taken 
up  in  connection  with  the  places  in  the  reading  where 
references  to  myths  or  to  mythological  persons  are 
found.  For  instance,  Apollo,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  Greek  gods,  is  spoken  of  in  the  Anabasis  in  connec- 
tion with  his  oracle  at  Delphi,  while  in  the  first  book  of 
the  Iliad  he  is  seen  visiting  his  wrath  upon  the  Greeks 
by  means  of  a  pestilence.  The  two  passages  afford  an 
opportunity  for  studying  the  different  aspects  of  the  cult 
of  Apollo,  and  so,  it  seems  to  me,  of  fixing  in  the  stu- 
dent's mind  these  essentials  in  a  much  firmer  way  than 
if  they  were  learned  out  of  connection  with  an  actual 
observed  case. 

To  assist  this  knowledge  further,  and  to  enlarge  at  the 

same   time   the   student's  acquaintance  with    ^  ^   ^, 

^  The  Reading 

Greek  themes  in  English  literature,  it  is  well    of  English 

to  call  for  the  reading  of  some  bit  of  English    ^^^' 


326  MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART 

which  has  the  same  or  a  similar  theme.  To  illustrate 
what  I  have  in  mind,  I  would  suggest  the  reading  of  Swin- 
burne's The  Lost  Oracle  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
Apollo  and  his  oracle:  Tennyson's  Tithonus  will  come 
naturally  in  connection  with  the  reading  of  the  Odyssey ^ 
Book  V.  Further  material  in  great  abundance  may  be 
found  in  Gayley.  It  is  the  existence  of  a  myth  as  a 
factor  in  literature  that  is  the  main  point  to  be  grasped. 
As  to  attempting  an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  a  myth,  I 
believe  that  is  a  matter  to  be  settled  by  each  teacher,  as 
his  judgment  shall  decide.  Such  explanations  are  not 
always  certain,  they  are  frequently  confusing,  and  their 
value  is  secondary.  It  is  best  to  treat  these  creations  of 
the  imagination  as  actual  living  creatures,  for  only  so  is 
their  influence  to  be  at  all  adequately  grasped.  There 
is,  at  best,  little  enough  of  the  imaginative  left  in  our 
school  work. 

Greek  Art,  "  Though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  most  people 
are  more  familiar  with  classical  authors  as  a  source  for  in- 
importance  of  formation,  the  remains  of  art,  and  especially  of 
Greek  Art.  Greek  art,  are,  from  its  position  in  antiquity, 
one  of  the  most  important  sources  for  the  study  of  the 
institutions,  customs,  and,  above  all,  the  spirit  and  char- 
acter of  that  people,  and  of  the  changes  and  modifi- 
cations of  its  constitution  and  spirit  in  various  localities 
and  various  epochs.  It  is  difficult  for  those  of  our  time 
to  realize  this  primary  and  essential  position  held  by  art 
with  the  Greeks,  simply  because  art  is  not  to  us  the  great 
reality  which  it  was  to  the  ancient  Greeks."  These  sen- 
tences, taken  from  a  distinguished  contemporary  inter- 
preter ^  of  Greek  art,  present  at  once  in  clear  fashion  the 
importance  of  this  part  of  the  study  of  Greek  antiquity, 
and  at  the  same  time  indicate  the  great  difficulty  in 
securing  any  adequate  appreciation  of  it.     And  yet  an 

1  Charles  Waldstein,  Essays  on  the  Art  of  Pheidias  New  York,  1885. 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART  327 

increased  power  of  perceiving  the  beautiful,  and  greater 
love  for  beautiful  objects  ought  to  be  one  of  the  choicest 
fruits  of  study  which  deals  with  the  one  people  who  in 
all  the  history  of  mankind  were  supremely  endowed  with 
this  knowledge  and  love  of  beauty,  and  with  the  power 
of  expressing  it  in  enduring  forms  of  art. 

This  feehng  for  the  beautiful  cannot  be  obtained  by 
any  reading  or  learning  of  facts  about  beautiful  objects. 
Beauty  in  sculpture  is  appreciated  by  a  power  Ytt^^yg  neces- 
gained  through  seeing  beautiful  statues,  not  saryasweuas 
by  reading  descriptions  of  them.  The  knowl-  ^"°"^i^^8^®- 
edge  of  what  is  good  in  architecture  comes  from  seeing 
fine  and  noble  buildings,  not  from  learning  their  dimen- 
sions, or  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made.  A  love 
for  good  music  comes  from  hearing  good  music,  not  from 
studying  the  various  books  about  musical  history  or 
musical  theory.  The  most  exact  knowledge  about  the 
syllables,  the  feet,  and  the  caesural  pause  of  the  Homeric 
verse  will  not  give  the  student  any  adequate  idea  of  what 
the  verse  really  is.  He  must  hear  it  read  aloud,  and 
must  so  read  it  himself,  in  order  to  know  its  beauty. 
The  student,  then,  must  get  his  power  to  appreciate  the 
beauty  of  Greek  art  by  seeing  the  best  of  its  creations, 
or,  as  that  is  seldom  possible  in  the  United  States,  by 
seeing  the  best  obtainable  representations  of  them. 
There  is  no  danger  now,  I  imagine,  that  the  student  will 
fail  to  see  pictures  enough  in  his  school-rooms.  Rather, 
it  seems  to  me,  is  he  exposed  to  the  risk  of  seeing  too 
many.  The  various  processes  of  photographic  reproduc- 
tion have  been  so  developed  that  prints  of  one  kind  or 
another  are  very  common.  Confusion  of  ideas,  lack  of 
clear  vision  of  the  best,  must  be  the  result  of  too  many 
pictures,  and  especially  if  they  are  cheap  ones. 

A  careful  selection  of  photographs  should  be  made 
for  the  purposes  of  illustration,  whether  of  the  art  monu- 


328 


MYTHOLOGY  AND   ART 


ments  illustrating  the  author  being  read  at  the  time, 
or  of  a  systematic  course  of  instruction  in  the  history  of 
Materials  for  ^^t.  If  there  is  in  the  school  a  regular  de- 
mustration.  partment  of  art  with  its  own  collections  and 
with  its  separate  teacher,  then  help  can  be  obtained  from 
this  source.  But  this  is  likely  to  be  the  case  in  few 
schools,  and  the  teacher  of  Greek  must  look  out  for  this 
part  of  his  instruction.  What  he  can  have  will  be  en- 
tirely dependent  on  the  money  at  his  disposal.  I  believe 
it  is  best  to  have  at  least  one  good  plaster  cast  of  some 
piece  of  sculpture,  and  one  such  cast  bronzed.  The 
advantages  of  casts  over  pictures  hardly  needs  to  be 
emphasized,  and  a  single  example  at  least  should  be 
secured,  if  possible.  The  head  of  the  Hermes  of  Praxi- 
teles would  be  my  choice,  if  no  more  than  a  bust  can  be 
bought.  If  a  full  statue  can  be  afforded,  there  is  a  fair 
choice  between  several,  but  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos 
would  perhaps  give  the  best  satisfaction.  Not  too  many 
photographs  should  be  shown  at  any  one  time,  or  even 
hung  on  the  walls  at  the  same  time.  It  is  better  to 
change  the  pieces,  and  so  secure  undivided  attention  to 
the  one  or  the  few  in  view.  A  great  advantage  in  the 
representation  of  Greek  sculpture  is  gained  by  showings 
a  specimen  with  the  colouring  restored,  or  at  least  by  the 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  something  about 
the  practice  of  colouring  marble.  There  is  one  fine 
illustration  in  colour  in  Baumeister's  Denkindler.  The 
teacher  should  watch  for  an  opportunity  to  look  at 
Hamdy-Bey  and  '^€\'cv'd.z\^ ?,  Necropole royale a  Sidon,  Paris, 
1896,  and  especially  at  the  illustrations  in  the  accom- 
panying atlas  of  plates.  These  are  magnificent  repre- 
sentations of  the  sculptured  reliefs  on  the  so-called 
Alexander  Sarcophagus  of  Sidon.  Interesting  also  is 
the  conjectural  restoration  in  colour  of  the  Doric  temple 
architecture  in  Fenger's  Dorische  Polychromie,  with  atlas 


MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART  329 

of  plates,  Berlin,  1886.  These  last-mentioned  are  not 
likely  to  be  found  outside  of  a  large  library,  but  a  chance 
to  examine  the  first  one,  at  least,  should  not  be  allowed 
to  escape. 

Some  explanation  and  interpretation  of  each  piece 
shown  is  necessary,  and  for  this  the  teacher  must  make 
a  careful  preparation.  The  teacher  must  have  mastered 
the  subject  quite  as  much,  perhaps  even  more,  in  this 
field  as  in  the  grammar  work.  In  grammatical  matters 
he  can  give  only  what  he  knows,  and  as  a  guide  to  the 
beauties  of  Greek  art  he  can  give  only  what  he  feels. 
Colleges  give  some  opportunity  for  this  study  of  Greek 
art,  and  universities  offer  special  courses  of  instruction 
in  the  field.  With  the  aid  of  a  book  like  Gardner's 
Greek  Sculpture  such  museum  collections  as  are  now 
available  in  every  city  of  considerable  size  may  be  made 
to  supply  what  deficiencies  previous  training  has  left. 
Simplicity  of  statement  is  extremely  desirable  in  all  ex- 
planations. In  no  field  is  it  easier  to  use  words  which 
convey  no  definite  impression  to  the  student.  Enough 
of  illustration  and  explanation  should  be  given  to  show 
in  some  measure  the  historical  growth  and  development 
of  Greek  art.  This  is  easily  done  in  connection  with 
the  reading  of  Homer,  and  then  of  an  Attic  author  or 
authors.  Or  it  may  be  done  in  connection  with  and  as 
a  part  of  the  work  in  Greek  history.  Once  explained, 
the  picture  or  cast  should  be  looked  at  long  and,  if 
possible,  lovingly  by  each  student,  kol  ovtco^  avrb 
TroirjCTei. 

Most  that  I  have  said  has  been  with  regard  to  sculp- 
ture.    The  apparatus  for  instruction  in  Greek  art  in  the 
wider  sense  must  make  some  provision  for  ^cMtecture, 
illustrating  some  of  the  most  famous  temples.  Vase  Paint- 
To  the  list  of  views  given   on  page  five  of 
Elson's  catalogue,  I   should   add,  if  possible,   a  plaster 


330  MYTHOLOGY  AND  ART 

model  of  the  Acropolis.  This  gives  a  much  better  idea 
than  any  number  of  maps  can  do  of  the  Propylaea  and 
the  walled  sides  of  the  hill.  How  far  any  attention  can 
be  given  to  vases  and  to  vase  paintings  must  be  a  mat- 
ter for  individual  judgment.  Possibly  the  school  library 
can  own  one  of  the  various  splendid  volumes  which  deal 
with  the  subject  and  which  contain  fine  reproductions. 
This  field,  interesting  as  it  is,  is  secondary  in  importance 
to  the  sculpture.  With  Greek  art  as  expressed  in  the 
coins  the  school  can  do  little,  though  it  may  be  possible 
sometimes  to  show  some  specimens.  Possibly  the  inter- 
est of  a  young  collector  of  coins  may  be  made  available 
for  encouraging  him  to  a  deeper  study.  In  that  case 
Gardner,  P.,  Types  of  Greek  Coins,  Cambridge,  1883, 
will  be  of  valuable   service. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  settle  the  propor- 
tionate value  of  the  subjects  presented  in  the  previous 
The  Question  pages  for  his  individual  work  and  the  needs 
of  Values.  q{  j^jg  pupils.  To  do  this  wisely  he  needs 
such  a  careful  training  for  his  work  as  has  been  outlined 
above  at  page  207.  He  needs  a  thorough  training  in 
the  language,  for  no  one  can  teach  a  language  which  he 
does  not  know.  He  needs  a  broad  acquaintance  with 
its  literature,  for  no  one  can  teach  a  literature  which  he 
does  not  feel.  He  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  lit- 
erature and  of  the  social  and  political  organization  of 
his  own  country,  that  he  may  be  able  to  illustrate  the 
life  and  the  thought  of  an  ancient  people.  He  should 
know  the  science  of  language  for  the  sake  of  being  able 
to  illustrate  the  phenomena  of  Greek  by  the  more 
familiar  facts  of  English.  A  man  fully  equipped  can 
rise  above  the  petty  restrictions  of  any  method,  and 
may  say 

(TV  rrjBe  KpLV€L<;,  'H/3a/cXet9,  kclvt)  8'  iyo). 


APPENDIX 


DEALERS  HJ"  PHOTOGRAPHS,   PRINTS,   AND   CASTS. 

For  convenience  a  list  is  here  given  of  dealers  in 
photographs,  prints,  and  plaster  casts  of  subjects  con- 
nected with  Grecian  and  Roman  antiquity. 


I.     Addresses  of  Dealers  in  Photographs  and  Prints. 

New  York.   The  Helman-Taylor  Art  Co.,  257  Fifth  Avenue. 

Publishers  of  Harper's  Black  and  White  Prints  at  one  cent 
each. 

The  J.  C.  Witter  Co.,  123  Fifth  Avenue. 

The  Berlin  Photographic  Co.,  14  East  23d  Street. 

Braun,  Clement  &  Co.,  249  Fifth  Avenue. 

Frank  Hegger,  288  Fifth  Avenue. 

George  Busse,  12  West  28th  Street. 

A.  W.  Elson  &  Co.,  14  West  29th  Street. 

The  Perry  Pictures  Co.,  76  Fifth  Avenue.  This  firm  pub- 
lishes the  Perry  Prints  at  one  cent  each.  It  has  a  Boston 
office  (Tremont  Temple),  and  is  also  represented  by  local  art 
dealers  everywhere  in  this  country. 

Boston.     Soule  Photograph  Co.,  338  Washington  Street. 

Philadelphia.  London  Art  Publishers,  1624  Chestnut 
Street. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  Earl  Thompson  &  Co.  Publishers  of 
The  Blue  Prints,  at  one  cent  each. 


332  APPENDIX 

H.  Addresses  of  Dealers  in  Plaster  Casts  of  Works  of  Architecture 
and  Scxilpture. 

New  York.   L.  Castelvecchi  &  Co. 

Boston.   P.  P.  Caproni  &  Bro.,  19 14-1920  Washington  St. 

The  firms  in  the  above  lists  will  furnish  catalogues  or 
any  desired  information  concerning  their  stock  upon 
application. 

A  Suggested  List  of  Photographs  of  Boman  Subjects. 

1.  The  Roman  Forum. 

2 .  The  Arch  of  Constantine 

3.  The  Column  of  Trajan. 

4.  The  Cloaca  Maxima. 

5.  The  Atrium  Vestae. 

6.  Portrait  of  Vestal  Virgin. 

7.  Pantheon  —  Exterior  and  Interior  Views. 

8.  Reliefs  from  Arch  of  Titus. 

9.  View  of  Excavations  at  Pompeii. 

10.  A  Street  in  Pompeii. 

11.  The  House  of  Pansa. 

12.  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet. 

13.  Mosaic  of  '  Cave  Canem.' 

14.  Pompeian  Wall  Paiiiting. 

15.  The  Baths  of  Caracalla. 

16.  The  Aqueducts  Claudia  and  Anio  Novus. 

17.  The  Coliseum  —  Exterior  and  Interior  Views. 

18.  The  Mausoleum  of  Hadrian. 

19.  Tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella. 

20.  A  Columbarium. 

For  a  list  of  photographs  of  Greek  Subjects  the  reader 
is  feferred  to  the  excellent  selection  by  Professor  F.  B. 
Tarbell,  mentioned  on  page  322. 


Index 


Note.  —  The  indexes  for  both  parts  of  this  work  have  been  consoli- 
dated for  convenience  of  reference.  Items  which  refer  particularly  to 
either  the  Latin  or  Greek  sections,  and  are  not  self-explanatory,  are 
indicated  by  the  abbreviations  "  Z^/.,"  "  Rom."  or  "  GrP 


Ability  to  read  (G^r.),  219. 

Accent  {Gr.),  232. 

Esthetic  training  from  study  of 
Latin,  34, 

Alexander  the  Great,  318. 

Anabasis :  Book  V.,  266 ;  omis- 
sions in  reading,  260 ;  opening 
sections   of,   259 ;    "  simplified," 

254- 

Analysis,  as  a  method  of  study, 
should  not  be  employed  alone 
{Lat.),  134. 

Antiquities,  manuals  of,  198. 

Archaeology,  manuals  of  {Lat.),  199. 

Art  {Gr),  ^26;  illustrations  of, 
328. 

Articul ation  of  sentences  ( 6*^. ),"30 1 . 

Ascham,  Roger,  on  Latin  composi- 
tion, 167. 

Athens :  plan  of,  313 ;  size  of,  312. 

Athens  and  Sparta,  316. 

Bain,  Alexander,  his  objections  to 

the  study  of  Latin,  37  ff. 
Barrie,   J.   M.,   the   essay   contest 

from  "  Sentimental  Tommy,"  15. 
Beginner's  book  (Lat),  51  £f. 
Beginning    lessons    {Lat),    50  ff. ; 

{Gr.),  240-255. 
Bibliographies:  [Lat),  201;  (Gr.), 

240,  256,  269,  271,  298,  308,  319, 

321. 


Books  for  the  library  of  the  second- 
ary school  (Lat.),  197  ff. 

Boyesen,  H.  H.,  educative  value 
of  Latin  and  modern  languages 
compared,  31. 

Brunetiere,  M.  Ferdinand,  on  the 
educative  value  of  the  modern 
languages  as  compared  with 
Latin,  30  f. 

Burgess,  Isaac,  on  the  educative 
value  of  translation,  20. 

CiESAR :  or  Nepos  as  first  author, 
III  ff. ;  points  to  be  emphasized 
in  studying  this  author,  150  ff. 

Casts,  201. 

Change  in  language,  227. 

Cicero:  points  of  importance  in 
the  study  of  this  author,  152  £f.  ; 
to  precede  or  follow  Virgil,  119. 

Clauses,  joining  of  (Gr.),  250. 

Collar,  W.  C. :  on  Latin  composi- 
tion, 168  ff. ;  on  the  educative 
value  of  translation,  20. 

Comparative  philology,  195  f. 

Comparative  size  of  places,  312. 

Composition  {(7;'.),  298-307;  dis- 
like for,  298 ;  helps  in,  305 ; 
methods  in,  301,  306 ;  object  of, 
300;  often  made  too  hard,  299. 

Composition  (Lat.),  156  ff. 

Correlatives  {Gr.),  259. 


334 


INDEX 


De  Amicitia,  in  secondary  schools, 

125. 
De  Senectute,  in  secondary  schools, 

125. 
Dettweiler:  his  postulates  for  the 

Latin  grammar  of  to-day,  146  ff. ; 

on  the  importance  of  translation. 

Difficulties  of  Latin,  98. 
Dual,  omission  of,  243. 

Eclogues,  Virgil's,  suitable  for  the 

secondary  school,  121  f. 
Eliot,  Pres.  C.  W.,  on  the  essential 

processes  involved  in  education, 

22. 
Elision,  in  poetry  {Lat.),  188. 
Enclitics,  234. 
Etymology  {Lat),  196. 
Eutropius,  108. 
Expression,  as  an  educative  force 

{Lat.),  26. 

First  declension  {Gr.),  245. 

First  reading  [Lat.),  106. 

Five-year  and  six-year  Latin 
courses,  124. 

French,  its  educative  value  com- 
pared with  Latin,  27  ff. 

Function  of  language-study,  8. 

Geography:  essentials  of  [Gr.), 
311  ;  manuals  of,  199. 

German,  its  educative  value  com- 
pared with  Latin,  27  £E. 

German  teachers,  their  preparation 
for  their  work,  203  ff. 

Grammar  {Lat.) :  as  a  logical,  his- 
torical, and  aesthetic  discipline, 
135  ff. ;  text-books  of,  scope  and 
character,  141  ff. 

Grammars  {Lat.),  197. 

Grammar  school,  Latin  courses  in, 
126. 

Greek  elements  in  English,  223. 

Greeks,  their  neglect  of  language- 
study,  9  f. 


Greek  spirit,  the,  220. 
Greenough,  Professor,  on  reading 
at  sight,  86. 

Hale,  Professor,  on  reading  at 
sight  {Lat.),  85. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  an  important  reason 
for  studying  Latin,  29. 

Herodotus,  265. 

Hidden  quantity  [Lat.),  69  ff. 

Historical  training  from  study  of 
Latin,  33.      , 

Histories  [Lat.),  199  ff. 

History,  Greek :  how  much  can  be 
taught,  313;  mythology  and, 
322;  periods  of,  314-318;  who 
should  teach,  309. 

History,  Roman,  191  f. 

Homer:  Arnold  on  translating, 
282  ;  as  now  studied,  296 ;  choice 
of  subjects  in,  274  ;  English  ver- 
sions of,  283 ;  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
297  ;  in  high  school,  273 ;  inter- 
pretation of,  278,  281;  language 
of,  292 ;  reading  of  text,  274, 
276;  selections  in  reading,  294; 
shortening  the  Iliad,  295  ;  short- 
ening the  Odyssey,  296;  trans- 
lating of,  292. 

Humanistic  revival  {Lat.),  2. 

Ictus,  its  probable  character  {Lat.), 
178  ff. 

Illustrative  material  {Lat.),  197  ff. 

Imitation,  a  process  of  slight  edu- 
cative value,  88. 

Inductive  method,  80  ff. 

Institutions,  Roman,  the  import- 
ance of  studying  them,  194  f. 

Language-study,  its  function,  8. 

Latin  composition,  156  fF. 

Laurie,  on  the  educative  value  of 

translation,  20. 
Lexicons  {Lat.),  197. 
Limitations  in  study  {Gr.),  222. 


INDEX 


335 


Lowell,  on  the  importance  of  trans- 
lation, i8. 
Lysias,  265. 

Macaulay  and  Greek,  220. 

Mackenzie,  Principal,  educative 
value  of  Latin  and  modern  lan- 
guages compared,  29. 

Madvig,  on  ictus  {Lat.),  186. 

Maps  (Gr.),  310;  (Rom.),  201. 

Memory,  alleged  overtraining  of, 
55  ff. 

Methods,  their  limitations,  211  ff. 

Middle  Ages,  position  of  Latin  at 
that  time,  i. 

Model  sentences  {Gr.),  249. 

Modern  Greece,  319. 

Modern  languages,  their  educative 
value  compared  with  Latin,  27  ff. 

Mythology,  manuals  of,  200. 

Mythology  {Gr.):  art  and,  323; 
history  and,  322 ;  in  English 
literature,  324;  learning  of,  325. 

Nepos   or   Caesar  as  first  author, 

iiiff. 
New  Testament  {Gr.),  267. 
Nouns  {Gr.),  inflection  of,  245,  252. 

Objections  urged  against  study 
of  Latin,  35  ff. 

Objects  in  study  {Gr.),  219. 

Observation,  as  an  educative  pro- 
cess {Lat.)y  23  f. 

Ovid,  124. 

Parsing  {Gr.),  258. 
Participles,  use  of  {Gr.),  303. 
Particles, correlative  {Gr.),  251,259. 
Paton,  on  the  educative   value  of 

translation,  20. 
Paulsen,  Fr,,  his  objection  to  the 

study  of  Latm,  39  ff. 
Perfect  tense  {Gr.),  244. 
Philology,  195  f. 
Photographs,  201. 
Plato,  264. 


Preparation  of  teachers,  202  ff. 

Proclitics,  234. 

Pronouns, demonstrative  {Gr.),  304. 

Pronunciation  {Gr.),  228-234;  con- 
sonants, 231 ;  diphthongs,  230  ; 
proper  names,  234-239;  vowels, 
229;  Roman,  66  ff. 

Proper  names,  form  of  {Gr.),  234- 

239- 
Prosody  {Lat.),  175  ff. 
Purpose  of  Latin  study,  6  ff. 

Quantity,  its  importance  in  read- 
ing verse  {Lat.),  182  fF. 

Reading:  aloud  {Gr.),  249;  first 

lessons  in  {Gr.),   253;   at  sight 

{Lat.),  85  ff. 
Reasoning,  as  an  educative  process 

{Lat.),  24. 
Recitation,  work  of  {Gr.),  257. 
Recording,  as  an  educative  process 

{Lat.),  24. 
Renaissance,   its    significance    for 

Latin  study,  2. 
Roman  history,  191  ff. 
Roman  literature,  manuals  of,  200. 

Sallust,  123. 

Speech  and  writing  {Gr.),  226,  228. 

Spencer,    Herbert,   his   objections 

to  the  study  of  Latin,  35  f. 
Subjective  acquisition  of  language, 

88. 
Substitutes  for  Latin,  45  f. 
Synonyms,  manuals  of  {Lat.),  197. 
Syntax,  teaching  of  {Gr.),  247. 
Synthetic   work   important  {Lat.), 

134- 

Teachers  :  American,  not  well 
trained,  202  ff. ;  examination  of, 
in  Germany,  202  f.,  207  ;  their 
preparation,  202  ff. 

Teaching  and  examining  {Gr.),  257. 

Topography,  manuals  of  {Rom.), 
199. 


336 


INDEX 


Translation :  at  sight  {Lat.)^  103  ff. ; 

its     educative     power,     11     ff . ; 

Burgess's    views,    20;     Collar's 

views,  20 ;  Dettweiler's  views,  19 ; 

Lowell's     views,      18;      Paton's 

views,  20 ;  Shorey's  views,  20  f . ; 

versus  original  composition,  2 1  f. ; 

should  be  idiomatic  {Lat.),  131. 
Transliteration  {Gr),  236. 

Verbs  [Gr.) :  classification  of,  252  ; 

Ijerfect    of,    244;    the    first    for 

study,  242. 
Vernacular:  how  training  in  it  is 

best   attained,    11   f . ;   its   direct 

study  shown  to  be  educationally 

inadequate,  45  f. 


Versification,  176  fT. 

Virgil,  points  of  importance  in  the 

study  of  this  author,  153  ff. 
Viri  RomcB^  107.     - 
Vocabulary,    in    beginning    work 

{Lat),  63. 

Wheeler,  Pres.  B.  I.,  on  educative 
value  of  modern  languages  as 
compared  with  Latin  and  Greek, 

30- 

Words  [Gr.):  order  of,  249,  260, 
302,  306 ;  order  kept  in  translat- 
ing, 292. 

Writing  {Gr),  drill  in,  245,  246. 

Xenophon,  263. 


A  LIST  OF 

BOOKS    FOR    TEACHERS 


PUBLISHED   BY 


LONGMANS,    GREEN,    &   CO. 


Psychology  in  the  Schoolroom. 

By  T.  F.  G.  Dexter,  B.A.,  B.Sc,  and  A.  H.  Garlick,  B.A.,  author 
of  "A  New  Manual  of  Method."     421  pages.     Crown  8vo.     $1.50. 

Many  students  have  little  difificulty  in  mastering  the  general 
principles  of  the  Science  of  Psychology,  but  experience  considerable 
difficulty  in  applying  those  principles  to  the  Art  of  Teaching';  and 
it  is  because  special  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  application  of 
the  subject  that  it  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  be  of  some  service, 
not  only  to  the  student  and  young  teacher,  but  also  to  teachers 
generally. — From  the  Preface. 


Recently  adopted  at  Yale,  Cornell, 
University  of  Mississippi,  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  University 
of  Minnesota,  Syracuse  University, 
Adelphi  College,  University  of 
Utah,  Temple  College  (Philadel- 
phia), Mount  Holyoke;  State  Normal 
Schools,  at  Plattsburgh,  N.  Y.; 
Denver,  Colo. ;  Peru,  Neb. ;  White- 
water, Wis.;  Lowell,  Mass. ;  Cheney, 
Wash. ;  Cedar  Falls,  la. ;  Winchester, 
Tenn.;  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.;  New 
York  Training  School  for  Teachers  ; 
Training  Class,  Utica,  N.  Y. 

Hon.  Joseph  W.  Southall, 
State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Virginia: — "I  cannot 
commend  too  highly  Dexter  and 
Garlick's  '  Psychology  in  the  School- 
room '  to  all  teachers  who  wish  to 
learn  the  scientific  principles  on 
which  all  correct  teaching  is  based. 
It  is  a  model  text-book." 

F.  M.  McMurry,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  : — "  It  is 
particularly  valuable  for  teachers 
who  have  made  little  study  of  the 
subject  of  psychology  and  who 
desire  to  realize  its  practical  bearings 
upon  instruction." 


Albert  Leonard,  President  of 
Michigan  System  of  Normal 
Schools: — "This  is  a  book  which 
will  receive  a  cordial  welcome  at 
the  hands  of  wide-awake  teachers. 
It  is  altogether  the  best  book  of  the 
kind  that  I  have  seen." 

Miss  Lucy  Wheelock,  Kinder- 
garten Training  School,  Boston, 
Mass.: — "  It  has  proved  to  be  such 
a  treasure  that  we  are  to  adopt  it 
for  our  junior  class  book,  I  shall 
send  you  an  order  for  it  as  soon  as 
the  class  assembles." 

Gervase  Green,  Yale  Univer- 
sity:— "  It  will  fill  a  long-felt  need. 
The  psychology  is  sound,  and  the 
pedagogical  applications  full  and 
suggestive." 

Dr.  Joseph  S.  Taylor,  Editor  of 
New  York  Teachers'  Magazine : — 
"  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine 
how  more  could  be  crowded  into 
equal  space  with  the  same  clearness 
that  we  find  in  this  delightful  book. 
We  have  had  applied  psychologies 
before  us  in  large  numbers,  but  we 
have  never  seen  one  so  simple  and 
full  of  meat  as  this." 


Longmans,  Green,  &  Go's  Publications, 


Qerman  Higher  Schools — ^The  History,  Organization,  and 
Methods  of  Secondary  Education  in  Germany. 

By  James  E.  Russell,  Ph.D.,  Dean  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  New  York.  8vo.  468  pages.  With  7  Appendices  of  Tables 
and  a  Full  Index.     $2.25. 

This  book  is  the  result  of  Dr.  Russell's  personal  investigation  of  the  Ger- 
man Schools  at  the  instance  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  and  as  the  Special  Agent  of  the  United  States.  Very  little  has 
been  written  heretofore  in  English  on  the  secondary  education,  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  German  University  training  and  the  basis  of  all  profes- 
sional service  in  the  Fatherland,  although  it  is  in  this  sphere  that  German 
education  can  be  studied  to  best  advantage. 

Contents:  Beginnings  of  German  Schools — The  Rise  of  Protestant 
Schools — The  Period  of  Transition — The  Reconstruction  of  the  Higher 
Schools — The  Prussian  School  System — The  Higher  Schools  of  Prussia 
— Foundation  and  Maintenance  of  Higher  Schools — Rules,  Regulations 
and  Customs — Examinations  and  Privileges — Student  Life  in  the  Higher 
Schools — Instruction  in  Religion — Instruction  in  German — Instruction 
in  Greek  and  Latin — Instruction  in  Modern  Languages — Instruction  in 
History  and  Geography — Instruction  in  Mathematics — Instruction  in 
the  Natural  Sciences — The  Professional  Training  of  Teachers — Ap- 
pointment, Promotion,  and  Emoluments  of  Teachers — Tendencies  of 
School  Reform — Merits  and  Defects  of  German  Secondary  Education — 
The  Privileged  Higher  Schools  of  Germany  in  1897 — Attendance  in 
Higher  Schools  in  Prussia — System  of  Privileges — Salary  Schedules — 
Pensions  of  Teachers  in  the  Higher  Schools  of  Germany — Extracts 
from  the  General  Pension  Laws  of  Prussia — Leading  Educational  Jour- 
nals of  Germany — Index. 


The  Outlook,  New  York:— "  The 
book  abounds  in  matters  of  interest 
to  all  professional  teachers.  The 
work  is  certain  to  remain,  at  least  for 
years,  the  standard  reference-book 
and  authority  upon  this  subject." 

The  Dial,  Chicago: — "The  au- 
thor shows  wide  readmg  on  this  sub- 
ject and  skilful  use  of  the  note-book. 
He  sprinkles  quotations  over  his 
pages  most  plentifully,  but  he  so 
weaves  them  into  his  narrative  or 
exposition  as  not  seriously  to  impair 
the  unity  of  his  composition.  But, 
what  is  more  to  the  purpose,  he 
shows,  when  dealing  with  the  second- 
ary schools  as  they  now  exist,  a  large 
first-hand  knowledge,  obtained  by 
personal  visitation  of  schools  and 
conference  with  teachers  and  educa- 
tional authorities.    There  is  no  work 


in  the  English  language,  known  to 
us,  that  contains  so  much  and  so 
valuable  information  about  the  sec- 
ondary schools  of  Germany,  Nor  is 
the  book  a  book  of  facts  merely  ;  the 
author  has  an  eye  also  for  ideas  and 
forces,  and  conducts  his  historical 
narration  with  constant  reference  to 
these  factors." 

Public  Opinion,  New  York: — 
"  An  original  and  very  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  literature  of  peda- 
gogies. For  Germany's  position  in 
educational  matters  is  an  assurance 
that  one  may  learn  much  from  a 
study  of  any  of  her  schools.  After 
several  historical  chapters  each  study 
of  the  secondary  schools  is  taken  up 
separately — a  very  wise  plan  which 
greatly  simplifies  a  search  for  par- 
ticular information." 


Longmans,  Green,  &  Go's  Publications, 


AMERICAN  QTIZEN  SERIES. 

A  Series  of  Books  on  the  Practical  Workings  of  the  Functions  of  the 
State  and  of  Society,  with  Especial  Reference  to  American  Conditions 
and  Experience.  Under  the  Editorship  of  Dr.  Albert  Bushnell 
Hart,  of  Harvard  University. 

Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  with  Special  Reference  to 
American  Conditions.  T/it'rd  Edition^  Revised. 

By  Carroll  D.  Wright,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor ;  Lec- 
turer in  the  Catholic  University  of  America.  Large  crown  8vo,  with 
12  Maps  and  Diagrams.     464  pages.     $2.00. 

Contents:  Parti.  The  Basis. of  Practical  Sociology.  Intro- 
duction— I.  Development  of  the  Science  of  Social  Relation — 2.  The 
Population  of  the  United  States — 3.  The  Status  of  the  Population  of 
the  United  States — 4.  Native  and  Foreign  Born.  Part  II.  Units  of 
Social  Organism,  i.  Social  Units — 2.  Political  Units.  Part  III. 
Questions  of  Population,  i.  Immigration — 2.  Urban  and  Rural 
Population — 3.  Special  Problems  of  City  Life.  Part  IV.  Questions 
of  the  Family,  i.  Marriage  and  Divorce — 2.  Education — 3.  Employ- 
ment of  Women  and  Children.  Part  V.  The  Labor  System,  i.  Old 
and  New  Systems  of  Labor — 2.  Appliances  of  the  Modern  Labor  Sys- 
tem— 3.  Relations  of  Employer  and  Employee — 4.  Questions  Relating 
to  Strikes  and  Lockouts.  Part  VI.  Social  Well-Being.  i.  The 
Accumulation  of  Wealth — 2.  Poverty — 3.  The  Relation  of  Art  to  Social 
Well-Being — 4.  Are  the  Rich  Growing  Richer,  and  the  Poor  Poorer  ? 
Part  VII.  The  Defence  OF  Society,  i.  Criminology — 2.  The  Pun- 
ishment of  Crime — 3.  The  Temperance  Question — 4.  Regulation  of 
Organizations.  Part  VIII.  Remedies  :  Solutions  that  are  Proposed 
for  Social  and  Economic  Difficulties.     Maps  and  Diagrams.     Index. 

Outlook,  New  York  :— "  The  in- 
itial volume  ....  sets  a  high 
standard  for  its  successors  to  pre- 
serve. .  .  .  These  bibliographies 
fit  the  book  peculiarly  for  advanced 
classes,  from  which  independent 
work  is  expected.  The  field  which 
the  volume  covers  is  extremely  broad. 
.  On  all  these  subjects  a 
prodigious  amount  of  American  sta- 
tistical information  is  given." 

Dial : — "  In  this  field  of  thought 
Mr.  Wright's  book  presents  more 
abundant  stores  of  fact  than  any 
similar  publication.  The  statistical 
matter  is  actually  made  interesting. 
.  .  .  .  The  student  of  society 
is  here  supplied  with  a  mass  of  data 
of  great  importance,  and  is  directed 
to  abundant  and  valuable  sources  of 
information  and  discussion." 


Professor  C.  M.  Geer,  Bates 
College,  Lewiston,  Me.: — "  I  am 
very  much  pleased  with  the  book,  as 
it  covers  what  ought  to  be  given  in  a 
college  course  in  sociology." 

Professor  I.  A.  Loos,  State 
University,  Iowa  City,  la.: — "I 
think  Dr.  Wright  has  done  his  work 
remarkably  Well,  and  he  alone  could 
have  given  us  just  this  work, crammed 
with  knowledge  and  good  sense, 
lighting  up  the  path  of  the  student 
through  the  mazes  of  documentary 
material." 

American  Journal  of  Sociology, 
University  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 111. : 
— ' '  Colonel  Wright  could  not  fail  to 
produce  a  notable  book  on  the  sub- 
ject to  which  he  has  devoted  this 
volume.  There  is  no  equally  avail- 
able compilation  and  classification." 


Longmans,  Green,  &-  Go's  Publications. 

The  Art  of  Teaching. 

By  David  Salmon,  Principal  of  Swansea  Training  College.     Crown 

8vo.  289  pages.  $1.25. 
This  book  is  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  teaching  as  a  Technical  Art, 
founded  on  experience,  philosophical  principle  and  scientific  observation. 
In  the  Introduction  the  author  adopts  Milton's  definition  of  "  a  complete 
and  generous  education,"  but  points  out  that  the  school  teacher  is  really- 
only  one  factor  in  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  culture,  and  that,  even 
to  be  efficiently  so,  he  has  need  of  professional  training.  His  aim  must  be 
directed  to  secure  the  utility,  discipline,  and  pleasure  of  the  taught  as 
results  of  exercised  activity.  The  author  takes  up  in  successive  chapters — 
(i)  Order,  Attention,  and  Discipline,  and  gives  rules  applicable  to  the 
regulated  and  successful  exercise  of  these  that  they  may  become  habitual  ; 
(2)  Oral  Questioning — how  to  proceed  with  and  succeed  in  it,  and  what  to 
avoid  while  engaged  in  the  process  ;  (3)  Object  Lessons — what  to  aim  at  in 
giving  them,  and  how  to  accomplish  the  intended  result ;  (4)  Reading, 
Spelling,  Writing,  and  Arithmetic — how  they  should  be  taught,  and  the 
relative  merits  of  various  methods  of  procedure  ;  (5)  English,  including 
Composition,  Grammar,  and  Literature  ;  (6)  Geography,  and  how  to  make 
the  teaching  of  it  educative  and  valuable  ;  (7)  History,  and  the  methods  of 
giving  it  a  living  (not  a  bookworm)  interest ;  (8)  the  Education  of  Infants — 
as  a  speciality. 

'[From  the  New  York  Nation^ 

Salmon's  contributions  to  elementary  school  literature  are  many  and  valu- 
able. It  suffices  to  mention  his  "Object  Lessons,"  "School  Grammar," 
"School  Composition,"  "Stories  from  Early  English  History."  He  has 
now  collected  into  the  volume  before  us  his  views  on  the  "  Art  of  Teach- 
ing." The  treatment  of  the  subject  is  orderly,  thorough,  authoritative.  He 
takes  up  first  the  fundamental  matters  of  order,  attention,  discipline.  Then 
comes  a  charming  discussion  of  the  art  of  oral  questioning.  Next  follows  an 
estimate  of  the  claims  upon  attention  of  the  main  subjects  of  elementary  study, 
with  invaluable  hints  as  to  the  teaching  of  each.  The  subjects  treated  are  : 
Reading,  Spelling,  Writing,  Arithmetic,  English,  Geography,  History.  This 
is,  indeed,  familiar  ground,  but  the  treatment  is  so  able,  so  acute,  so  com- 
prehensive, that  there  is  constant  variety  and  constant  interest.  A  very 
valuable  portion  of  the  volume  is  the  section  of  sixty  pages  on  Infant  Edu- 
cation. Not  only  are  the  history  and  development  of  the  kindergarten  here 
admirably  discussed,  but  the  original  and  valuable  contributions  of  England 
to  the  Education  of  young  children  are  set  forth.  Most  wise  and  helpful  is 
Salmon's  discussion  of  the  best  ways  of  teaching  the  elementary  studies. 
This  portion  of  the  book  is  a  true  teachers'  manual.  It  is  a  genuine  pleasure 
to  commend  without  qualification  this  admirable  manual.  It  is  a  worthy 
companion  to  Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teaching,"  and,  like  that  book,  ought 
to  be  on  every  teacher's  shelf. 


H.  C.  Missimer,  Superintendent 
of  Public  Schools,  Erie,  Pa.:— "I 
have  read  Salmon's  '  Art  of  Teach- 
ing,' and  believe  it  to  be  the  best  work 
on  the  subject  yet  published.     It  is 


simple,  direct,  clear,  practical,  and 
has  evidently  been  written  by  one 
who  has  had  experience  with  every 
problem  and  difficulty  of  the  school- 
room." 


Longmans,  Green,  &-  Go's  Publications. 

A  New  Manual  of  Method. 

By  A.  H.  Garlick,  B.A.,  Head  Master  of  the  Woolwich  P.  T.  Centre. 
Crown  8vo.     Neia  Edition.     398  pages.     $1.20.* 

Contents  :  School  Economy — Discipline — Classification  (Grading) — 
Notes  of  Lessons — Class  Teaching — Object  Lessons — Kindergarten — 
Arithmetic  —  Reading  —  Spelling — Writing  —  Geography —  History — 
English — Elementary  Science — Music. 

The  experience  of  the  author  in  the  teaching  of  School  Method  has  led 
him  to  believe  that  young  students  require  much  more  help  in  this  subject 
than  is  offered  in  existing  manuals,  and  that  it  is  essential  that  the  informa- 
tion contained  should  be  offered  in  its  most  serviceable  form.  His  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  no  book  is  suitable  unless  it  is  comprehensive  in  its 
range,  practical  in  its  nature,  and  modern  in  its  methods.  For  this  reason 
all  the  subject-matter  in  this  book  has  been  carefully  methodized,  and  m'ch 
of  it  thrown  into  teaching  form— the  form  which  is  most  difficult  to  yo...ng 
teachers  to  acquire,  and  the  most  useful  in  practice. 

This  work  is  based  on  the  writer's  teaching  notes  during  the  past  ten 
years  ;  and  as  it  grew  to  meet  the  wants  of  his  own  pupils  for  their  recur- 
ring examinations,  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  found  specially  suitable  for 
teachers  and  students. 

William  H.  Maxwell,  City  Superintendent,  New  York,  in  the  Educa. 
tional  Review; —  "  .  .  .  He  treats  of  all  the  subjects  in  the  elementari^ 
curriculum.  .  .  .  The  conspicuous  merits  of  the  book  are  its  clear- 
ness, its  conciseness,  and  its  fullness.  If  a  teacher  is  at  a  loss  to  know 
how  to  teach  an  important  point, —  say  in  arithmetic,  history  or  geography, 
—  he  has  only  to  open  this  book  at  the  appropriate  heading,  and  he  will  find 
an  excellent  method  of  presenting  it,  which,  if  he  has  any  ingenuity,  he  can 
easily  adapt  to  his  own  uses.  If  he  is  in  doubt  about  a  matter  of  discipline, 
such,  for  instance,  as  how  to  treat  a  case  of  obstinacy,  he  will  find  the 
different  kinds  of  obstinacy  classified,  and  the  appropriate  treatment  sug- 
gested for  each  kind.  In  short,  the  book  is  a  vade  mecum  which  the  teacher 
should  no  more  think  of  reading  through  than  he  would  of  perusing  the 
dictionary  from  cover  to  cover,  but  which  he  will  do  well  to  consult  when 
confronted  with  a  difficulty.     .     .     .  " 

J.  J.  McNulty,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York: — "In  our  pedagogical  course,  we  are  using  Garlick's  Manual  of 
Method  as  a  practical  guide  for  students  intending  to  teach.  The  remark- 
able success  of  our  candidates  for  state  and  city  licenses,  and  the  satisfac- 
tory results  of  the  examinations  in  methods  of  teaching,  I  attribute,  in  large 
measure,  to  the  interesting  manner  in  which  the  various  subjects  are  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Garlick." 

Nation,  New  York  : — "It  is  the  best  manual  of  its  scope  in  English." 

The  Independent,  New  York  : — "  The  notes  given  on  all  these  topics 
are  those  of  a  master,  and  of  a  master  from  whom  any  teacher  in  these 
grades  of  instruction  might  be  glad  to  receive  suggestions." 

Professor  Carla  Wenckebach,  Wellesley  College, Wellesley,  Mass.: — 
"  It  is  excellent.     No  teacher  can  do  without  it." 


Longmans,  Green,  &-  Go's  Publications. 


Common  Sense  in    Education. 

By  P.  A.  Barnett,  M.  A.     Crown  8vo.     331  pages.     $1.50. 

This  volume  is  based  on  a  systematic  course  of  lectures  on  the  Practice 
of  Education,  which  was  delivered  to  Teachers  during  the  last  term  of  1898. 
The  lectures  have  been  re-written  and  enlarged,  and  additional  matter 
treated,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  introduction  to  the  study  of  current  prob- 
lems of  teaching  and  school  practice.  Such  points  of  general  theory  are 
discussed  as  determine  organization,  curriculum,  and  schoolroom  procedure. 

The  subject  of  education  is  treated  under  the  following  general  heads  :  — 
I.  Lessons  from  the  History  of  Education  ;  Warnings  from  Demonstrated 
Errors — 2.  The  Physical  Basis  of  Education,  and  the  Hygiene  of  Learning 
— 3.  The  General  Discipline  of  Character — 4.  Discipline  in  Instruction — 5. 
Curricula — 6,  Audible  Speech  ;  Native  and  Foreign  Languages — 7.  Liter- 
ature— 8.  Science  and  Mathematics — 9.  History  and  Geography — 10.  The 
"  Classical  "  Languages — ii.  Special  Studies  and  Examinations — 12.  The 
Making  of  the  Teacher. 


Paul  H.  Hanus,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Cambridge,  Mass.  :  —  "I 
have  looked  the  book  through  with 
much  interest.  While  I  cannot  agree 
with  all  the  author's  views,  I  am  glad 


to  see  that  the  book  justifies  the 
title.  I  shall  take  pleasure  in  calling 
the  attention  of  students  and  teach^ 
ers  to  it." 


Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History :  being 
a  Supplement  to  Text=books  of  English  History, 
B.C.  55— A.D.  1832. 

Arranged  and  edited  by  Charles  W.  Colby,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
of  History  in  McGill  University,  Montreal.  Crown  8vo.  361  pages. 
$1.50. 


Professor   Max  Farrand, 

Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.  :  —  "  The  most  satisfactory 
expression  of  opinion  that  I  can 
make  to  you,  I  suppose,  of  Colby's 
Selections,  is  the  announcement  that 
I  am  so  greatly  pleased  with  it  that 
I  shall  adopt  it  for  use  in  my  class 
in  English  History  for  next  year." 

Professor  Benjamin  S.  Terry, 
University  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.: — "  It  is  a  good  book,  and 
something  which  the  teacher  of 
English  History  has  long  needed. 
I  shall  be  very  glad  to  use  it  in  my 
own  work," 

Julius  Howard  Pratt,  Jr., 
Milwaukee  Academy,  Milwaukee, 
Wis. :  — ' '  It  is  very  satisfactory  to 


have  books  of  this  kind  that  give 
a  glimpse  at  the  original  sources  in 
a  way  to  attract  rather  than  to  repel 
the  young  student." 

Professor  Allen  Johnson,  Iowa 
College,  Grinnell,  Iowa: — "Let  me 
add  simply  that  I  am  greatly  pleased 
with  the  presswork  of  this  volume  ;  it 
is  a  pleasure  to  put  so  faultless  a  piece 
of  work  into  the  hands  of  students." 

Journal  of  Education,  Boston  : 
— "  Few  '  supplements '  are  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  satisfactory  study  of 
any  subject  as  is  Dr.  Colby's  '  Selec- 
tions from  the  Sources  of  English 
History.'  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  no  teacher  should  conduct  a  class 
in  English  history  without  making 
constant  use  of  this  book." 


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